1、 How far does the writer make use of the emotive and other associations of words, as opposed to their referential meaning?Does the text contain idiomatic phrases, and if so, with what kind of dialect or register语域 are these idioms associated?Is there any use of rare or specialized vocabulary? Are an
2、y particular morphological categories noteworthy （e.g. compound words, words with particular suffixes）?To what semantic fields. do words belong?The checklist of lexical categories and their stylistic functions：1）NOUNSabstract *（抽象）society/idea, or concrete（具体） house/cat?What kinds of abstract nouns
3、occur events： war/eruption, perceptions： understanding/consciousness, processes： development, moral： virtue social： responsibility, qualities： bravery What use is made of proper names? Are there any collective nouns people/staff?2）Adjectivereferring to what attribute?Physical： woolen psychological ：
4、joyfulVisual： hilly square/snowy Auditory： bubbling/sizzling sensory： slippery/smooth Color： dark/red referential：big dog/white house Emotive： exited/happy Evaluative： good/fat/ bad/lazyGradable： young/tall/useful or non-gradable： atomic/British?Attributive： an utter fool or predicative he is ashore
5、 ?Restrictive the exact answer?Intensifying the simple truth / a complete victory/a slight effort?stative tall/long or dynamic abusive/ambitious?3）VerbsAre they stative cost/believe/remain, or dynamic walk/arrive?Do they refer to movements climb/jump/slide, physical acts spread/smell/taste/laugh, or
6、 speech acts persuade/decline/beg, psychological states or activities think/feel/imagine/know/love. or perceptions see/hear/feel?Are they transitive shut the door, intransitive the door shuts, or linking be/sound/seem/taste/ smell?Are they factive know/regret/forget/remember or non-factive believe/a
7、ssume/consider/suppose/ think/ imagine?4）Adverbs5）What semantic functions do they perform?Manner anxiously/ carefully/ loudly/ willingly?place away/along/across/upstairs/elsewhere?direction backwards/forward/up/down/in/out?time ago/already/finally/shortly/immediately?degree almost/completely/partly/
8、deeply/much?Are there any significant use of sentence adverbs? 1） adjuncts like happily, proudly, now, outside? 2） conjuncts like so, therefore, however? 3） disjuncts like certainly, obviously, frankly?1. SENTENCE TYPESDoes the author use only statements （declarative sentences）, or does he also use
9、questions, commands, exclamations. or minor sentence types （such as sentences with no verb）?If these other types are used, what is their function?2. SENTENCE COMPLEXITY. Do sentences on the whole have a simple or a complex structure?What is the average sentence length （in number of words）?What is th
10、e ratio of dependent to independent clauses?Does complexity vary strikingly from one sentence to another?Is complexity mainly due to （i） coordination, （ii） subordination, （iii） parataxis （juxtaposition of clauses or other equivalent structures）?In what parts of a sentence does complexity tend to occ
11、ur?For instance, is there any notable occurrence of anticipatory structure （e.g. of complex subjects preceding the verbs, of dependent clauses preceding the subject of a main clause）?3 CLAUSE TYPES What types of dependent clause are favored: relative clauses, adverbial clauses, different types of no
12、minal clauses （thatclauses, whclauses, etc）?Are reduced or non-finite clauses commonly used, and if so, of what type are they （infinitive clauses, ing clauses, ed clauses, verbless clauses）?.4.CLAUSE STRUCTURE. Is there anything significant about clause elements （eg frequency of objects, complements
13、, adverbials; of transitive or intransitive verb constructions）?Are there any unusual orderings （initial adverbials, fronting of object or complement, etc）?Do special kinds of clause construction occur? （Such as those with preparatory it or there）?5 NOUN PHRASESAre they relatively simple or complex?
14、Where does the complexity lie （in pre-modification by adjectives, nouns, etc, or in post-modification by prepositional phrases, relative clauses, etc）?Note occurrence of listings （eg sequences of adjectives）, coordination, or apposition.6. VERB PHRASES. Are there any significant departures from the
15、use of the simple past tense?For example, notice occurrences and the functions of the present tense; of the progressive aspect （eg was lying）; of the perfective aspect （eg has/had appeared）;modal auxiliaries （eg can, must, would）.7 OTHER PHRASE TYPES. Is there anything to be said about other phrase
16、types: prepositional phrases, adverb phrases adjective phrases?8 WORD CLASSES.Having already considered major or lexical word classes, we may here consider minor word classes （function words）:prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, determiners, auxiliaries, interjections.Are particular words of these
17、types used for particular effect （eg the definite or indefinite article; first person pronouns I, we, etc; demonstratives such as this and that; negative words such as not, nothing, no） ?9 GENERAL. Note here whether any general types of grammatical construction are used to special effect e.g. compar
18、ative or superlative constructions; coordinative or listing constructions; parenthetical. constructions; appended or interpolated structures such as occur in casual speech. Do lists and co-ordinations （e.g. lists of nouns） tend to occur with two, three or more than three members?Here we consider the
19、 incidence of features which are fore-grounded by virtue of departing in some way from general norms of communication by means of the language code;for example, exploitation of regularities of formal patterning, or of deviations from the linguistic code. For identifying such features, the traditiona
20、l figures of speech （schemes and tropes） are often useful categories.1 GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL SCHEMES. （这一部分会和稍后说的第四部分略有重合）Are there any cases of formal and structural repetition （anaphora, parallelism, etc） or of mirrorimage patterns （chiasmus）?Is the rhetorical effect of these one of antithesis,
21、reinforcement, climax, anticlimax, etc.?2 PHONOLOGICAL SCHEMES.Are there any phonological patterns of rhyme, alliteration, assonance, etc?Are there any salient rhythmical patterns?Do vowel and consonant sounds pattern or cluster in particular ways?How do these phonological features interact with mea
22、ning?3 TROPES修辞. Are there any obvious violations of, or departures from the linguistic code?For example, are there any neologisms （such as Americanly）?deviant lexical collocations （such as portentous怪异的 infants）?semantic, syntactic, phonological, or graphological deviations?Such deviations will oft
23、en be the clue to special interpretations associated with traditional figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, paradox, irony. If such tropes occur, what kind of special interpretation is involved （eg metaphor can be classified as personifying, animizing, concretizing, synaesthetic,
24、 etc）?D: Context and cohesionUnder COHESION衔接 ways in which one part of a text is linked to another are considered: for example, the ways in which sentences are connected. This is the internal organization of the text. Under CONTEXT we consider the external relations of a text or a part of a text, s
25、eeing it as a discourse presupposing a social relation between its participants （author and reader; character and character, etc）, and a sharing by participants of knowledge and assumptions.I.COHESION. Does the text contain logical or other links between sentences （eg coordinating conjunctions, or l
26、inking adverbials）?Or does it tend to rely on implicit connections of meaning?What sort of use is made of crossreference by pronouns （she, it, they, etc）? by substitute forms （do, so, etc）, or ellipsis?Alternatively, is any use made of elegant variation the avoidance of repetition by the substitutio
27、n of a descriptive phrase （as, for example, the old lawyer or her uncle may substitute for the repetition of an earlier Mr. Jones）?Are meaning connections reinforced by repetition of words and phrases or by repeatedly using words from the same semantic field?2.CONTEXT. Does the writer address the re
28、ader directly, or through the words or thoughts of some fictional character?What linguistic clues （first-person pronouns I, me, my, mine） are there of the addresser-addressee relationship?What attitude does the author imply towards his subject?If a characters words or thoughts are represented, is th
29、is done by direct quotation: direct speech）, or by some other method （eg indirect speech. free indirect speech）?Are there significant changes of style according to who is supposedly speaking or thinking the words on the page?以下这篇是老师给的一个例子：（咱们可以当作模版来用，但如果题目不一样，照上面）题目：From Joseph Conrad, The Secret Sh
30、arerOn my right hand there were lines of fishing stakes resembling a mysterious system of half-submerged bamboo fences, incomprehensible in its division of the domain of tropical fishes, and crazy of aspect as if abandoned for ever by some nomad tribe of fishermen now gone to the other end of the ocean; for there was no sign of human habitation as far as the eye could reach（1）. To the left a group of barren islets, suggesting ruins of stone walls, towers, and blockhouses, had its foundations set in a blue sea that itself looked solid, so still and stable did it lie below my feet; even the tra
