最新英语语言学笔记.docx
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最新英语语言学笔记.docx
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最新英语语言学笔记
Linguistics
Chapter1Introduction:
LanguageandLinguistics
●Whatislanguage?
⏹Differentdefinitionsoflanguage
◆Languageisasystemwhosepartscanandmustbeconsideredintheirsynchronicsolidarity.(deSaussure,1916)
◆[Languageis]aset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.(Chomsky,1957)
◆Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.
⏹Eachofthedefinitionsabovehaspointedoutsomeaspectsoftheessenceoflanguage,butallofthemhaveleftoutsomething.Wemustseethemulti-facetednatureoflanguage.
⏹Asisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
●Featuresofhumanlanguage
⏹Creativity
◆Languageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.
◆Thegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.
⏹Duality
◆Languagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.
◆Certainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.
◆Certainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.
⏹Arbitrariness
◆Therelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.
◆Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.
⏹Displacement
◆Thereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.
◆Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.
⏹Culturaltransmission
◆Culturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.
◆Languageisawayoftransmittingculture.
⏹Interchangeability
◆Allmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.
⏹Reflexivity
◆Humanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.
◆Thelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.
●Whatislinguistics?
⏹Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.
◆Observing&questioning
◆Formulatinghypotheses
◆Verifyingthehypotheses
◆Proposingatheory
⏹Branchesoflinguistics
◆Internalbranches:
intra-disciplinarydivisions
●Phonetics
●Phonology
●Morphology
●Syntax
●Semantics
◆Externalbranches:
inter-disciplinarydivisions
●Pragmatics
●Psycholinguistics
●Sociolinguistics
●Appliedlinguistics
●Computationallinguistics
●Neurolinguistics
⏹Featuresoflinguistics
◆Descriptive
◆Dealingwithspokenlanguage
◆Synchronic
Chapter2Phonetics
●Whatisphonetics?
⏹Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.
⏹Sub-branchesofphonetics
◆Articulatoryphonetics–theproductionofspeechsounds
◆Acousticphonetics–thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds
◆Auditoryphonetics–theperceptivemechanismofspeechsounds
●Thespeechorgans
⏹Wheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?
◆Fromthelung
⏹Whatisthefunctionofvocalcords?
◆Controllingtheairstream
⏹Whatarethecavities?
◆Oralcavity
◆Pharyngealcavity
◆Nasalcavity
●Transcriptionofspeechsounds
⏹Unitsofrepresentation
◆Segments(theindividualsounds)
⏹Phoneticsymbols
◆ThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).
◆TheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbrackets[]todistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.
◆Inmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.
●Descriptionofspeechsounds
⏹DescriptionofEnglishconsonants
◆Generalfeature:
obstruction
◆Criteriaofconsonantdescription
●Placesofarticulation
●Mannersofarticulation
●Voicingofarticulation
◆Placesofarticulation
●Thisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.
⏹Bilabial:
[p][b][m][w]
⏹Labiodental:
[f][v]
⏹Interdental:
[][]
⏹Alveolar:
[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]
⏹Palatal:
[][][t][d][j]
⏹Velar:
[k][g][]
⏹Glottal:
[h]
◆Mannersofarticulation
●Thisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.
⏹Stops:
[p][b][t][d][k][g]
⏹Fricatives:
[s][z][][][f][v][][][h]
⏹Affricates:
[t][d]
⏹Liquids:
[l][r]
⏹Glides:
[w][j]
⏹Nasals:
[m][n][]
◆Voicingofarticulation
●Thisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.
⏹Voicedsounds
⏹Voicelesssounds
⏹DescriptionofEnglishvowels
◆Generalfeature:
withoutobstruction
◆Criteriaofvoweldescription
●Partofthetonguethatisraised
⏹Front
⏹Central
⏹Back
●Extenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate
⏹High
⏹Mid
⏹Low
●Kindofopeningmadeatthelips
●Positionofthesoftpalate
◆Singlevowels(monophthongs)anddiphthongs
Chapter3Phonology
●Whatisphonology?
⏹Phonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.
⏹Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.
⏹Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.
◆Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?
◆Whatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?
◆Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?
●Phonemesandallophones
⏹Aphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.
⏹Thevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.
⏹Weuseallophonestorealizephonemes.
●Discoveringphonemes
⏹Contrastivedistribution–phonemes
◆Ifsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.
◆Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.
●Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.
●Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.
◆TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.
◆SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.
⏹Complementarydistribution–allophones
◆Soundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.
◆Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.
⏹Freevariation
◆Ifsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.
●Distinctiveandnon-distinctivefeatures
⏹Featuresthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.
⏹Distinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.
●Phonologicalrules
⏹Phonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.
⏹Whatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.
⏹Theregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.
⏹TherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.
●[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_
●[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_
●Suprasegmentalfeatures
⏹Featuresthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.
⏹Thesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.
⏹Stress
◆Stressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.
◆Stressisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress.
◆Ifawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.
◆Insomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.
⏹Intonation
◆Whenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.
◆Intonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeaning.
◆Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.
◆InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:
fall,rise,fall-rise.
⏹Tone
◆Toneisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishwords.
◆Thesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.
◆Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.
Chapter4Morphology
●Whatismorphology?
⏹Thetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.
⏹Wordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.
⏹Morphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.
●Morphemesandallomorphs
⏹Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.
⏹Amorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.
⏹“zero”formofamorphemeandsuppletives
◆Somecountablenounsdonotchangeformtoexpressplurality.Similarly,someregularverbsdonotchangeformtoindicatepasttense.Inthesetwocases,thenounorverbcontainstwomorphemes,amongwhichthereisone“zeroform”ofamorpheme.
◆Someverbshaveirregularchangeswhentheyareinpasttense.Inthiscase,theverbsalsohavetwomorphemes.Wordswhicharenotrelatedinformtoindicategrammaticalcontrastwiththeirrootsarecalledsuppletives.
●Freeandboundmorphemes
⏹
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