应用语言学期末论文AL Homework.docx
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应用语言学期末论文AL Homework.docx
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应用语言学期末论文ALHomework
WhatCananEnglishTeacherDoinVocationalColleges?
—ApplicationofKrashen’sTheory
Abstract:
Nowadays,someseriousproblemsinEnglishteachinginvocationalcollegesaretobesolved.Krashen’ssecondlanguageacquisition(SLA)theoryisveryhelpfulandinstructiveinEnglishteachinginvocationalcolleges.ThispaperaimsatshowingthegeneralapplicationofKrashen’sSLAtheory.
KeyWords:
application;SLAtheory;Englishteaching;VocationalCollege
1.Introduction
Highervocationaleducationisanessentialpartofourhighereducationanddevelopingveryfastinrecentyears.Itspurposeistotrainhightechnicalworkersforoureconomicdevelopment.However,Englishteachinglevelisinurgentneedofpromotionduetovariousreasons.TheEnglishteachersareeagertofindsometheoreticalinstructiontoimprovetheirteachingeffect.ThispapermainlystudiessomepossibleapplicationofKrashen’sSLAtheoryinEnglishteachingofvocationalcolleges.
ManfredPienemann(1995)posesthequestion,"Whyisitimportantforlanguageteacherstoknowaboutlanguageacquisition?
"Lookingatthelearnerandthelanguageacquisitionprocessesprovidesinformationonwhatlearnersnormallydoandwhatcanbetaught.Basedonnormalpatternsofacquisition,teachersshouldbeabletoevaluatewheretheirstudentsareintheacquisitionprocess.ThestudyofSLAwillalsoenableteacherstoexamineasyllabustodetermineifthecontentisdesignedtowardsthelearner'slevelofability.
2.SurveyofKrashen’sSLATheory
Asasubject,SecondLanguageAcquisitionisdevelopingveryfastbecauseoftherapiddevelopmentofforeignlanguagelearningandteachingmarket.Therehavebeenmorethanfortytheoriesproposedbyoverseascholars(LarsenFrecman,1991).Amongthem,StephenD.Krashen’sMonitorModelisprobablythemostcomprehensiveandpopulartheory(RodEllis,1986).Since1975,Krashenhasbeenworkingveryhardandcarefullytostudythelanguageinputtheory,whichisbasedontheMonitorModel.Itconsistsoffivecentralhypotheses:
theacquisitionlearninghypothesis,thenaturalorderhypothesis,themonitorhypothesis,theinputhypothesis,theaffectivefilterhypothesis.
2.1TheAcquisition—LearningDistinctionHypothesis
StephenKrashen(1981)proposesthedistinctionbetweenacquisitionandlearningofalanguage.Itisthemostimportantfoundationofallhypotheses,andthemostfamousoneamongalotoflinguistsandlanguageusers.
Accordingtohisopinion,languageacquisitionissubconsciousandverysimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage. Throughlanguageacquisition,languagelearnersnaturallydeveloplinguisticabilitylikechildren.Acquisitioncomesfromparticipatingcommunicativeactivities.Itoccursthroughnaturalcommunicationwherethefocusisonmeaning.Generally,alanguagelearneris notawareoftherulesofalanguagehehasacquired,insteadhehasa‘feel’forcorrectness:
“whenwehearanerrorwemaynotknowexactlywhatrulewasviolated,butsomehow‘know’thatanerrorwascommitted”(Krashen1983:
26). Butformallanguageteaching,whichisgrammar-basedapproachesanderroridentificationarestressed,doesnotencourageacquisition. However,languagecanbeacquiredintheclassroomwhenthefocusisoncommunication–forexample,throughdialogues,role-playing,andotherformsofmeaningfulinteraction.
However,consciouslanguagelearning,issaidtobeaproductofformalinstructionresultingintheknowledgeaboutthelanguage,e.g.knowledgeofgrammarrules,takesplaceinformalenvironments(Krashen1981). Thispropositionseemstobeentirelyrealizedinformalteaching,whose“goalisthelearningofconsciousrules,anderrorcorrectionisthoughttohelpthelearnerarriveatthe‘right’formoftherule”(Krashen1983:
26).
Krashen(1981)proposesthatlearningcannotbecomeacquisition,asinmanyinstancesacquisitionwithoutlearningappears,whichmeansthatanindividualmaybeacompetentuserofasecondlanguagenotknowingitsrulesconsciously. Anothersupportingargumentisthatwhenoneknowstherulebutcontinuesbreakingit.
2.2TheNaturalOrderHypothesis
Thishypothesisstatesthatgrammaticalstructuresareacquiredinainvariantorder:
“thereisafairlystableorderofacquisitionofstructuresinlanguageacquisition,thatis,onecanseeclearsimilaritiesacrossacquirersastowhichstructurestendtobeacquiredearlyandwhichtendtobeacquiredlate”(Krashen1981:
5-6). ThetablebelowillustratestheorderofacquisitionofEnglishasasecondlanguage,forbothchildrenandadults.
AverageOrderofAcquisitionofGrammaticalMorphemesforEnglishasaSecondLanguage(ChildrenandAdults)
ING(progressive)
PLURAL
COPULA(tobe)
AUXILIARY(progressive)
ARTICLE(a,the)
IRREGULARPAST
REGULARPAST
IIISINGULAR(-s)
POSSESSIVE(-s)
Note:
fromKrashenandTerrell1983.
Itindicatesthatwhenthelearnersisfulfillinganaturalcommunicationtask,hewilldemonstratethestandardorder;whenheisengagedinataskwhichusesmeta-linguisticknowledge,forexample,agrammartest,dedifferentordermayoccur.Krashen,however,doesnotsuggestthatlanguageteachingsyllabusesshouldbebasedontheorderfoundinthestudies,asheputsforwardrejectionofanytypeofgrammaticalsequencing,whenthegoalislanguageacquisition.
2.3 TheMonitorHypothesis
AsKrashen(1982)claims,theMonitoristhedevicethatlearnersusetoedittheirlanguage.Thus,bytheuseofthelearnedsystem,alearnerisabletocorrectthemistakesofspeecheitherbeforeoraftertheutterancehasbeenpronouncedorwritten. TherearecertainconditionstoberequiredfortheMonitoruse,namelysufficienttime,focusonform,andknowledgeoftherule(KrashenandTerrell1983).Nevertheless,itisnotexclusivelytheconsciouslearnedknowledgeofrules thatcanactastheMonitor.Itisalsotheacquiredknowledgeoflanguage,thesocalled‘feel’forgrammaticality thatcanbeusedforself-correctionandthisisthecasewhenanativespeaker correctshis/herspeecherrors.Krashen(1981)pointsoutthattherearethreetypesofpeopleintheMonitoruse.
Thefirsttypeistheover-users,whotendtousetheMonitorallthetime. Theyrefertotheconsciousgrammar,drivenbyfearofmakingmistakes,becausetheypaymoreattentiontocorrectnessandform.Theydon’thaveconfidenceintheiracquiredknowledge. Yet,theover-useoftheMonitormayalsocomefromlackofacquisition.Thosetrainedonlyinclassrooms,wheretheemphasisisonconsciousgrammar,maydevelopextensiveformalknowledgeofthetargetlanguage,withverylittleacquisition,andbecomeover-users. Suchperformersmayutilizethefirstlanguageasanutteranceinitiatorwhenforcedtospeak,sincetheylackacquiredcompetenceinthesecondlanguage.TheOver-users,however,quiteoftenappeartobeaccurateinwrittenassignments.
Thesecondtypeisunder-users,whohardlyeverusetheMonitor,evenifconditionspromoteit. “Theunder-usertypicallyjudgesgrammaticality‘byfeel’,thatis,heuseshissubconsciouslyacquiredsystem,ratherthanaconsciousgrammar”(Krashen1981:
20).
Thethirdtypeisoptimalusers,whousetheMonitoronlywhenitisappropriateanddoesnotconflictwithcommunication.IndailycommunicationoptimalusersdonotseemtoapplytheMonitor,obtainingfluencythisway. Itmightalsobeexplainedthattheuserpaymoreattentiontothemessage. Althoughtheyoccasionallymakemistakes,theyareabletoself-correct.Yet,informalwritingandcarefulspeech,theywillalwaysuseconsciousgrammaticalknowledge
2.4TheInputHypothesis.
TheInputhypothesisisprobablyoneofthemostimportantoutofallfivehypotheses.Ittriestoprovideananswertothequestionofhowalearneracquiresasecondlanguage. It“statessimplythatweacquire(notlearn)languagebyunderstandinginputthatisalittlebeyondourcurrentlevelof(acquired)competence”(KrashenandTerrell1983:
32). Forinstance,ifalearner’sstageis‘i’,thenacquisitionoccurswhenhe/sheisexposedtocomprehensibleinputthatconstitutes‘i+1’level,providedthathe/sheunderstandslanguagecontaining‘i+1’. Itcanbeachievedthroughreadingandhearingstructures,whichslightlysurpasslearner’spresentability,aswellasthroughcontextandextra-linguisticinformation. Followingthisassumption,itcanbefurtherstatedthatreadingandlisteningcomprehensionareofprimeimportancetospeakingandwritingability.
Theinputitselfcanbedividedintofinely-androughly-tuned.Thefinely-tunedinputaimsatthelearners'presentlevelofacquisition:
onestructureatatime.Thisistypicalofteachingsyllabus,whosegoalis‘i+1’.Sotheaimofthelesson,forbothteachersandstudents,istoteachandlearnaspecificgrammaticalitemorstructure. Assoonasthestructureismastered,thenextstructureofthesyllabuscanbepresented.
Theroughly-tunedinput,actsasanetspreadingoutaroundthecurrentlevelofacquisitionofthelearner,this‘i’,alsoconsistingofinstancesofhis‘i+1’. Inthiscase,thespeaker’sorteacher’saimistomakehimself/herselfunderstood.Itissaidthat“whencommunicationissuccessful,whentheinputisunderstoodandthereisenoughofit,i+1 willbeprovidedautomatically”(Krashen1982:
22).
Roughlytunedinputisperhapsmoreimportantandusefulthanfinelytunedinput.Inroughtuning,wearealwayscertainthati+1iscovered.Infinelytunedexercises,wearemakingaguessastowherethestudents’levelis.Withroughlytunedinput,weprovideconstantrecyclingandreview.Besides,roughlytunedinputwillbegoodformorethanoneacquireratatime,e
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