Cultural and Historical Contexts for Sister Carrie.docx
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Cultural and Historical Contexts for Sister Carrie.docx
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CulturalandHistoricalContextsforSisterCarrie
CulturalandHistoricalContextsforSisterCarrie
ClareVirginiaEby
Copyright©ClareVirginiaEby,2001
Note:
AllreferencestoSisterCarriearefromthePennsylvaniaEditionunlessotherwisenoted.Thequotationsalsoappear(somewithslightchanges)inthe1900Doubleday&Pageedition.
Ceaselessmotiondirectedtowarduncertaingoals:
formanyreaders,thatisanoverridingimpressionleftbyTheodoreDreiser'sSisterCarrie(1900).TherestlessindecisiontypicalofDreiser'scharactersreflectsprofoundtransformationsinAmericanlifeinthelatenineteenthcentury.Hisnovelmakesthevolatilityoftheperiodconcrete,vivid,andunforgettablebyregisteringitseffectonindividuallives.Amongthemostsweepingchangesregisteredinthenovelaretheeconomy'sshiftingfromanagriculturaltoanindustrialbase,theerosionoftraditionalvaluesfollowingtheDarwinianrevolution,andthechangingrelationsofmenandwomen.ReadingSisterCarriewithaneyetoculturalandhistoricalcontextssuchasthesecanleadtoashockofrecognition,forthenovelcapturestheoriginsofmuchthatwetakeforgrantedasfamiliar,eveninevitable,aspectsofmodernlife.
AsDreiserwouldbethefirsttoinsist,theculturethatSisterCarriereflectsisgroundedineconomicconditions.Hesetstheplotinmotionbytracingthemigrationof"Sister"Carrie,ayoungwomanwhoseattachmenttoherfamilyisfaint,fromhersmalltownhometothecityofChicago.Thedeclaredpurposeofthisjourney,ifnotthepsychologicalimpetusbehindit,isCarrie'sneedtofindwork.TheyearDreiserassignstoCarrie'smigrationis1889,andhersearchforlaborintheclosestmajorcityreflectsanationaltrend,asglimpsedinthetitlesofcontemporaneoustexts,suchastheU.S.BureauofLabor'sWorkingWomeninLargeCities(1888)andtheMassachusettsBureauofLabor'sTheWorkingGirlsofBoston(1889).In1890,oneyearafterDreiserimaginesCarrie'sarrivalinChicago,womenmadeupseventeenpercentofthenationallaborforce,withwomenbetweentheagesoffifteenandtwenty-fourformingthelargestproportionofthisgroup(Matthaei141).
Dreiser'sinitialfocusonwomen'swork,whichhequicklyexpandstoincludemen'slaboraswell,providesanaptindexofthechangingeconomy.FromthefoundingoftheU.S.throughtheearlynineteenthcentury,theeconomyhadbeenprimarilyagricultural,withtheindividualhouseholdthecenterofproduction.Individualfamiliesconsumed,forthemostpart,onlywhattheycouldthemselvesproduce.Contrarytothemodelofstay-at-homewifeandmotherassociatedwiththeVictorianerathroughmuchofthetwentiethcentury,intheearlyeconomy,thelaborofwomenwascentral.Womencannedthefamilycrops,spunclothandcrafteditintoclothingandlinens,madesoapsandcandles,andproducedotheressentialgoods.Thetransitionfromanagriculturaleconomycenteredinthefamilytoanindustrialordercharacterizedbymanagerialcapitalismdependedonthedevelopmentoffactoriesthroughoutthenineteenthcentury.Factoriesdemandedcentralizedlabor,largegroupsofunrelatedpeopleleavingthehomeandworkingunderoneroof.Withthisshift,worknecessarilymovedoutsidethehome,andasthathappened,themeaningofthefamilyandthehomealsochanged.DreisergroundsSisterCarrieinthisfactory-basedcapitalisteconomy,highlightingitseffectsonindividualsandfamilies.
SweepingeconomicchangemarkedtheperiodfromtheCivilWartothecloseofthenineteenthcentury.Thistransformationdependednotonlyuponthefactorysystemandalaborforcecentralizedincities,butalsoonavastinfrastructureoftechnologyaswellascommunicationsandfinancialsystems.PriortotheCivilWar,individualstatebanks(asmanyas1500ofthem)hadissuedtheirowncurrencies;onlywiththe1864NationalBankActdidtheU.S.establishanationalcurrencyofpapermoney.Fiveyearslater,competingbrokerswereconsolidatedintotheNewYorkStockExchange.Thetelegraphwasincommercialuseby1847,thetranscontinentalrailroadcompletedin1869,thetelephonecommercializedinthe1880s.Financialandtechnologicalinnovationssuchastheseallowedforanincreasedvolumeandspeedofbusiness.AstrikingexampleconcernsthetimeittooktomovefreightfromPhiladelphiatoChicago:
nineweeksin1849,threedaysin1859(Chandler122).Sincethecapitalisteconomydependsonquicklymovinggoodsfromproducertoconsumers,speedbecametheorderoftheday.Humanlifewassimilarlysettotheclock:
becausetherailroadsneededpreciselysynchronizedschedulestooperateeffectively,timezoneswereinstitutedin1883;meanwhile,"scientificmanagement,"thebrainchildofFrederickW.Taylor,devisedtime-motionstudiestoregulateeverymomentofaworker'sday.
WhileSisterCarrieregistersthefrenziedpacesetbythemarketplace,oneofthemostimportantchangesthenovelillustratesisthetransformationoftheeconomyfrombeingfueledbyproductiontobeingdrivenbyconsumption.Thisshiftisvisiblefromtheearlychapters,whenCarrierejectsthefrugalityandhardworkfavoredbyhersisterandbrotherinlaw,SvenandMinnieHanson,thoseuprightbutdullexemplarsoftheProtestantworkethic.RepresentativeofanewgenerationofAmericans,Carrieisnotoneto"submit[]toasolemnroundofindustry"whilepostponinggratification(32).Appropriately,Carrie'sfirstloverisa"drummer"(5)ortravellingsalesmanwhogoesontheroadtomarkethiscompany'swares.ThegenialCharlieDrouetproducesnothingtangibletosell,buttheeffortsofthousandslikehimkeptgoodsmovingtotheirultimatedestination,theconsumers.PotentialbuyerslikeCarriewitheasilymanipulabledesiresarealsoessential:
withoutdesire,theconsumereconomystalls.Inhisbest-sellingProgressandPoverty(1877-79),HenryGeorgeprovidesataxonomyofdesiresthatperfectlydescribeswhatweobserveinSisterCarrie.Describing"man"as"theonlyanimalwhosedesiresincreaseastheyarefed;theonlyanimalthatisneversatisfied,"Georgeexplainsthat"[t]hedemandforquantityoncesatisfied,heseeksquality.Theverydesiresthathehasincommonwiththebeastbecomeextended,refined,exalted.Itisnotmerelyhunger,buttaste,thatseeksgratificationinfood;inclothesheseeksnotmerelycomfort,butadornment;therudeshelterbecomesahouse."Andsotheconsumer"pass[es]intohigherformsofdesire,"worldwithoutend(134-5).IllustratingwhatGeorgecalls"aninfiniteprogression"ofwants(135),CarrieMeeberremainsarecognizablymodernfigure.
WeobservethepsychologyoftheconsumerinitspurestformwhenCarriewanderstheChicagodepartmentstores,whichDreisercalls"vastretailcombinations[...that]formaninterestingchapterinthecommercialhistoryofournation"(22).ThehistorytowhichDreiserrefersinvolveschangesinmerchandisingduringthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,whenmethodsofsellingproductsweredevelopedthatremaincommon.Inthe1850sand60s,wholesalersbeganmarketingstandardizedconsumerwares--everythingfromunderweartocoats,fromcurtainstofurniture.Themodernmassretailer,suchasthedepartmentstore(primarilyservingurbanpopulations)andmailorderfirms(bringingproductstoruralcommunities),developedinthe1870sand'80s.OneofthestoresthatCarrievisits,Chicago'sTheFair,openedin1879.Massretailinghadwide-rangingeffects,whichDreisertranslatesmemorablyintohumanterms.Customersbenefitedfromlowerpricesandexpandedchoices,butthesechoiceswereintendedtoinstill--asillustratedbyCarrieintheChicagodepartmentstore--anewandcuriouslyintimaterelationshipbetweenpurchaserandconsumergoods.Assheexaminestheattractivegoodsavailableforsale,Carrie"couldnothelpfeelingtheclaimofeachtrinketandvaluableuponherpersonally[....]Thedaintyslippersandstockings,thedelicatelyfrilledskirtsandpetticoats,[...]alltouchedherwithindividualdesire"(22).Fromthevantagepointofthetwenty-firstcentury,itisdifficulttoimaginewhatmusthavebeenaprofoundpsychologicaltransformation,aspeoplesetasidegarmentsmadeathomefromcoarsehomespuncloth,infavorofselectingready-madeclothingcuttostandardsizesandavailableinendlesslyproliferatingstyles.ButtheallurethatclothingandotherpersonaleffectshasforDreiser'scharacters--whathecalls"[t]hevoiceoftheso-calledinanimate!
"(98)--allowsustoglimpsethatmomentouschange.
Unboundedconsumptionthrivesespeciallyincities.Dreiser'smetropolitansettingsinSisterCarrie--theboomingcityofChicagoandtheestablishedmetropolisofNewYork--areideallocationsforwhatsocialscientistandculturalcriticThorsteinVeblendefinedin1899as"conspicuousconsumption."TheadjectiveinVeblen'sfamousphraseisastellingasthenoun,forthebehaviorsthattypifymodernspendingpatternshavelesstodowithsatiatingdesirethanwithadvertisingstatus.Suchconsumptionneedstobeconspicuouslyondisplay,andCarrie'sstrollingalongBroadwaywithMrs.Vance,"goingpurposelytoseeandbeseen"(323),preciselyfitsthebill.Themoderncity,indeed,maybeDreiser'sgreatestcharacterinSisterCarrie."Thecityhasitscunningwiles,"thenarratorremarksintheopeningchapter,anditseemsthatChicago,ratherthananyman,seducestheheroine(4).Chicago,describedbyDreiseras"agiantmagnetdrawingtoitselffromallquartersthehopefulandthehopeless"(16),mayhavesoenticedCarriebecauseofitsunprecedentedgrowth:
fromapopulationof300,000atthetimeofthefirein1871tooveronemillionby1890.Acommentatorinthatyearcapture
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