工商管理学外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 中国快速的城镇化所引起的不良反应.docx
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工商管理学外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 中国快速的城镇化所引起的不良反应.docx
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工商管理学外文翻译外文文献英文文献中国快速的城镇化所引起的不良反应
TheHealthPenaltyofChina’sRapid
Rapidurbanizationcouldhavepositiveandnegativehealtheffects,suchthatthenetimpactonpopulationhealthisnotobvious.Itis,however,highlypertinenttothehumanwelfareconsequencesofdevelopment.
ThispaperusescommunityandindividuallevellongitudinaldatafromtheChinaHealthandNutritionSurveytoestimatethenethealthimpactofChina’sunprecedentedurbanization.Weconstructanindexofurbancityfromabroadsetofcommunitycharacteristicsanddefineurbanizationintermsofmovementsacrossthedistributionofthisindex.Weusedifference-in-differencesestimatorstoidentifythetreatmenteffectofurbanizationontheself-assessedhealthofindividuals.Theresultsrevealimportant,androbust,negativecausaleffectsofurbanizationonhealth.Urbanizationincreasestheprobabilityofreportingfairorpoorhealthby5to15percentagepoints,withagreaterdegreeofurbanizationhavinglargerhealtheffects.
Whilepeopleinmoreurbanizedareasare,onaverage,inbetterhealththantheirruralcounterparts,theprocessofurbanizationisdamagingtohealth.Ourmeasureofself-assessedhealthishighlycorrelatedwithsubsequentmortalityandthecausalharmfuleffectofurbanizationonhealthisconfirmedusingmoreobjective(butalsomorespecific)healthindicators,suchasphysicalimpairments,diseasesymptomsandhypertension.
Urbanizationandeconomicdevelopmentareintimatelyrelated(Williamson,1988).ThereisnobetterexampleofthisthanChinainrecentdecades,wherearemarkablerateofeconomicgrowthhasbeenaccompaniedbyaprocessofurbanizationthatisunprecedentedinhumanhistory,bothinscaleandinspeed.TheproportionoftheChinesepopulationlivinginurbanareasincreasedfromonly20%in1980,to27%in1990,andreached43%in2005(NBS,2006;WorldBank2006).Bythemiddleofthiscentury,thecountry'surbanizationratehasbeenforecasttoreach75%(YusufandSaich,2008).Inthespaceofjustafewdecades,ChinawillcompletetheurbanizationprocessthatlastedhundredsofyearsintheWest.Thenon-economicconsequencesofsuchrapidurbanization,includingthoseforhealth,aswellasmoreobviouslyfortheenvironment,willdeterminethetruewelfareeffectsofdevelopmentandtheextenttowhichitissustainable.Theconsequencesforpopulationhealtharenotobvious.Ontheonehand,urbanlivingoffersimprovedaccesstomodernmedicine(particularlyinChina)andgainsinincomethatcanbeinvestedinhealth.Ontheother,thehealthofcitydwellersisthreatenedbyairpollution,moresedentaryandpossiblymorestressfulwork,socialdetachment,andWestern,high-fatdiets.ThispaperusespaneldatafromChinacoveringtheperiod1991-2004toestimatethenethealthimpactofurbanization.
Onaverage,healthoutcomesarefoundtobebetterinurbanpartsofthedevelopingworld(VandePoeletal,2007;Zimmeretal,2007).ThisapparenturbanhealthadvantagecontrastswiththehistoricalevidenceofurbanpopulationssufferingpoorerhealthinWesternEuropepriortoandduringitsperiodofindustrialization(Rosen,1958;Woods,1985,2003).Themostlikelyexplanationforthisdifferenceintheurban-ruralhealthdisparityovertimeandspaceisthemarkeddeclineintheprevalenceofinfectiousdiseases,inlow-incomeaswellashigh-incomecountries(Riley,2005),prompted,inlargepart,bypublichealthmeasuresbuiltonthegermtheoryofdisease(Preston,1975,1980;CutlerandMiller,2005)andtheintroductionofeffectivemedicines,antibioticsandvaccinations(Davis,1956;Cutleretal,2006;Soars,2007).Inthepast,theopportunitiesformaterialgainofferedbycitieshadtobeweighedagainstthedangersofinfection.Today,whilecitiesofthedevelopingworldcontinuetoposeriskstohealth,theimmediatethreattolifethroughinfectionhasreceded.However,theovercrowdingandpollutionthataccompanyurbanization,particularlyonthescaleandspeedwithwhichithasoccurredinChina,mayimposeanurbanhealthpenalty.
Duringthelastdecades,China’senvironmenthasdeterioratedsignificantlyasrapidurbanizationandindustrializationgenerateenormousvolumesofairandwaterpollutants(WorldBank,1997;WangandSmith,2000;Brajerand,2003).1Asotherdevelopingcountries,mostnotablyIndia,Chinareliesveryheavilyoncoalasasourceofenergy,withtheresultthatlevelsofairbornepollutioninChinesecitiesaremanytimesgreaterthanthosefoundinmostUSandEuropeancities(Pandeyetal,2006).2AWorldHealthOrganizationstudyhasestimatedthatthereare300,000prematuredeathsperyearinChinesecitiesattributabletooutdoorairpollution(Cohenetal,2004).3Urbanizationbringssocialandeconomicchangesthatcanraiseriskfactorsassociatedwithchronicdisease.Urbanpopulationsofmiddle-incomecountriesareexperiencingarapidnutritionaltransitiontowardsWestern-stylediets,dominatedbymoreprocessedfoodsandahighfatcontent(Popkin,2001;PopkinandDu,2003).Urbanizationinevitablyimpliesashiftinworkpatternsfromphysical,agriculturallabortowardsmoresedentaryoccupations(Mondaetal,2007).InChina,itisclaimedthatthesetransitionshavecontributedtostarkincreasesintheprevalenceofobesityandhypertension(Liuetal,2004;Wang,Mietal,2007;Wengetal,2007).Buturbanizationclearlyhaspositive,aswellasnegative,consequencesforpopulationhealth.Closerproximitytohealthcarefacilities,particularlyhospitals,equippedwithmoderntechnologyandstaffedbyhighlytraineddoctorsisanobviousadvantageoflivingintownsandcities.InChina,urban-ruraldifferencesinaccesstohealthcare,andinhealthinsurancecover,havebeenmarkedandwideninginrecentdecades(Liuetal,1999).
Accesstoschoolsandtohealtheducationinitiativesconferastrongadvantageonurbanareasinthefieldofpreventativehealthcare.Urbanpopulationscanalsousehigherincomes
toinvestinhealththroughhealthcare,anutritiousdietorbyreducingstrenuousworkeffort(Mooreetal,2003).Inthispaper,weestimatetheneteffectofurbanizationonhealthusinglongitudinaldatafromtheChinaHealthandNutritionSurvey(CHNS).Besidesbeingahouseholdpanel,thissurveyalsocollectsdataonthecharacteristicsofcommunities,makingitpossibletoidentifywhathappenstoindividuals’healthwhentheenvironmentinwhichtheylivebecomesmoreurbanized.Thisidentificationstrategyavoidstheselectionbiasesthatarisefromcomparisonsbetweenthehealthofurbanandruralpopulations,orfrommonitoringthehealthofmigrants,whichisdifficultorimpossibleinanycasewithmostpaneldata.
Adichotomousurban-ruralclassification,mostoftendoneonthebasisofpopulationdensity,doesnotcapturethevariationinlivingandhealthconditionsacrossareasatdifferentstagesofurbanization(McDadeandAdair,2001;VlahovandGalea,2002;ChampionandHugo,2004;DahlyandAdair,2007).Inaddition,thereisapracticalprobleminthatthecategorizationofanareaas‘urban’or‘rural’isoftenfixedoverwavesofalongitudinalsurvey,asitisintheCHNS,andsothiscategorizationdoesnotcapturetheurbanizationtakingplace.Inordertoidentifycommunitiesatvariousstagesoftheurbanizationprocess,andtotrackchangesovertimeinthedegreeofurbancitywithineachcommunity,weexploittheCHNSdataonthecharacteristicsofcommunitiestoconstructanindexofurbanicity,whichdepends,forexample,onpopulationsize,theproportionoftheworkforceengagedinagriculture,proximitytohealthandeducationalfacilities,andthepresenceofpavedroads,shops,restaurants,etc.Thisindexhasbeenshowntooutperformthesimpleurban-ruralclassificationthatcomeswiththeCHNSindetectingdifferentdegreesofurbanicity,measuringchangesinurbanicityovertimeandbeinglesspronetomisclassificationbias(VandePoleetal,2008).Wedefineurbanizationintermsofmovementofacommunityupthedistributionofthisurbanicityindex.Weadoptatreatmenteffectsframeworkanddefinetreatmentasmovementfromthebottomtothetophalfofthedistributionoftheindex.Toinvestigatewhetherthehealthimpactvarieswiththedegreeofurbanization,wealsodefineordinaltreatmentsintermsofmovementsuptextilesofthedistributionandbystandarddeviationincreasesintheindex.Weusedifference-indifferencesestimatorsmaderobusttounobservedindividualheterogeneitybyexploitingthepanelnatureofthedata(BlundellandCostaDias,2000;Wooldridge,2002).Themainhealthoutcomeusedinthepaperisself-assessedhealth(SAH),reportedonafour-pointscalefromexcellenttopoor.Thisgeneralmeasureofadulthealthhasrepeatedlybeenshowntobehighlypredictiveofmortality,evenconditionalonphysiologicalmeasuresofhealth(IdlerandBenyamin,1997).WeshowthatSAHpredictsmortalityintheCHNSanddemonstratethatitishighlycorrelatedwithmorespecifichealthoutcomessuchasobesity,hypertension,physicalimpairmentsandsymptomsofillness.Wealsoestimatetheimpactofurbanizationonthesenarrower,butmoreobjective,measuresofhealthstatus.
Toourknowledge,thisisthefirstpapertoestimatethecausaleffectofurbanizationonhealthfromlongitudinaldataonbothindividualsandcommunities.Thesedataallowustoidentifytheeffectofurbanizationbycomparingthehealthtransitionsofindividualslivinginareasthatexperiencerapidtransformationstoanurbanenvironmentwiththoselivinginareasthatremainrural.Wefindimportant,androbust,negativeeffectsofurbanizationonhealth.Urbanizationincreasestheprobabilityofreportin
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- 工商管理学外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 中国快速的城镇化所引起的不良反应 工商 管理学 外文 翻译 文献 英文 中国 快速 城镇 引起 不良反应