language transfer from Wikipedia.docx
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language transfer from Wikipedia.docx
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languagetransferfromWikipedia
Languagetransfer
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
"Negativetransfer"redirectshere.Forotheruses,see Negativetransfer(disambiguation).
Thisarticle mayrequire cleanup tomeetWikipedia's qualitystandards. No cleanupreason hasbeenspecified.Pleasehelp improvethisarticle ifyoucan. (September2010)
Languagetransfer (alsoknownas L1interference, linguisticinterference,and crossmeaning)referstospeakersorwritersapplyingknowledgefromtheirnativelanguagetoasecondlanguage.Itismostcommonlydiscussedinthecontextof Englishlanguagelearningandteaching,butitcanoccurinanysituationwhensomeonedoesnothaveanative-levelcommandofalanguage,aswhen translating intoasecondlanguage.
Contents
[hide]
∙1 Positiveandnegativetransfer
∙2 Proactiveinterferenceandnegativetransferinpsychology
∙3 Consciousandunconscioustransfer
∙4 Languagetransferincomprehension
∙5 Examples
∙6 Broadereffectsoflanguagetransfer
∙7 Seealso
∙8 Notes
∙9 References
[edit]Positiveandnegativetransfer
Blackboard usedin class at Harvard showsstudents'effortsatplacingthe ü and acuteaccent diacritics usedin Spanishorthography.
Whentherelevantunitorstructureofbothlanguagesisthesame,linguisticinterferencecanresultincorrectlanguageproductioncalled positivetransfer —"correct"meaninginlinewithmostnativespeakers'notionsofacceptability.Anexampleistheuseof cognates.Note,however,thatlanguageinterferenceismostoftendiscussedasasourceoferrorsknownas negativetransfer.Negativetransferoccurswhenspeakersandwriterstransferitemsandstructuresthatarenotthesameinbothlanguages.Withinthetheoryof contrastiveanalysis(thesystematicstudyofapairoflanguageswithaviewtoidentifyingtheirstructuraldifferencesandsimilarities),thegreaterthedifferencesbetweenthetwolanguages,themorenegativetransfercanbeexpected.
Theresultsofpositivetransfergolargelyunnoticed,andthusarelessoftendiscussed.Nonetheless,suchresultscanhavealargeeffect.Generallyspeaking,themoresimilarthetwolanguagesare,andthemorethelearnerisawareoftherelationbetweenthem,themorepositivetransferwilloccur.Forexample,an Anglophonelearnerof German maycorrectlyguessanitemofGermanvocabularyfromitsEnglishcounterpart,but wordorderand collocation aremorelikelytodiffer,aswill connotations.Suchanapproachhasthedisadvantageofmakingthelearnermoresubjecttotheinfluenceof"falsefriends".
[edit]Proactiveinterferenceandnegativetransferinpsychology
Duringthe1950’s,memoryresearchbeganinvestigatinginterferencetheory.Thisreferstotheideathatforgettingoccursbecausetherecallofcertainitemsinterfereswiththerecallofotheritems.Throughoutthe1950s,researchersprovidedsomeoftheearliestevidencethatthepriorexistenceofoldmemoriesmakesithardertorecallnewermemoriesandhedubbedthiseffect"proactiveinterference."[1][2][3][4] Duringthesametime,researchersbeganinvestigatingnegativetransfer.[1][5] Negativetransferconcernsitselfwithadetrimentaleffectofpriorexperienceonthelearningofanewtask,whereasproactiveinterferencerelatestoanegativeeffectofpriorinterferenceontherecallofasecondtask.[6]
Themostobviousandusedproactiveinterferenceandnegativetransferparadigmfromthe1950sand1960swastheuseofAB-AC,orAB-DElists.Participantswouldbeaskedtolearnalistofpairedassociatesinwhicheachpairconsistsofathreeletterconsonantvowelconsonant,nonsensesyllable(e.g.DYL),usedbecauseitwaseasytolearnandlackedpre-learnedcognitiveassociations,andacommonword(e.g.road).Inthisparadigmtwolistsofpairedassociationsarelearned.Thefirstlist,(commonlyknownastheABlist)wouldconsistofnonsensesyllablesasaprimer(whichconstitutedthe‘A’term),followedbyaword(whichconstitutedthe‘B’term).Thesecondlistwouldconsistofeitherthesamenonsensesyllableprimerandadifferentword(A-Clist)oradifferentnonsensesyllableprimerandadifferentword(D-Elist).TheAB-AClistwasusedbecauseitssecondsetofassociations(A-C)constitutesamodificationofthefirstsetofassociations(A-B),whereastheAB-DElistwereusedasacontrol.[4][7][8][9][10]
ShortlyafterwardsproactiveinterferencewasdemonstratedwiththeBrown-Petersonparadigm.[2] AsingleBrown-Petersontrialconsistsofastudylist,aretentionintervalandthenarecallperiod.Eachlistmayconsistofahandfulofrelateditemsandarepresentedindividuallyeveryfewseconds.Forthedurationofashortretentioninterval,subjectsarethenaskedtoperformanengagingdistractortasksuchascountingbackwardsinsevens,orthinkingofananimalwitheveryletterinthealphabettominimizerehearsal.[4][2][10] Subjectsarethenaskedtorecalltheitemsfromthissecondlist.Althoughthelistsfromprevioustrialsarenowirrelevant,thefactthattheywerestudiedatallmakesitdifficultforsubjectstorecallthemostrecentlist.
Negativetransferwasexaminedbyresearchersinthe60s[7][8][9][10] andfounddifferentiallearningbetweentrials.Specifically,differencesinthelearningratesoflist2providedclearevidenceofthenegativetransferphenomenon.SubjectslearnedanA-Cpairedassociationlisttoacriterionofallassociationscorrect,followinglearningalistofA-Bpairedassociationstocriterion.Ultimately,itwasfoundthatthosesubjectstookanincreasedamountoftrialstocompletethelearningtaskcomparedtosubjectswhodidn’tlearntheA-BlistorfromsubjectswhohadtolearnaD-Elist.[10]
[edit]Consciousandunconscioustransfer
Transfermaybe conscious or unconscious.Consciously,learnersorunskilledtranslatorsmaysometimesguesswhenproducingspeechortextinasecondlanguagebecausetheyhavenotlearnedorhaveforgottenitsproperusage.Unconsciously,theymaynotrealizethatthestructuresandinternalrulesofthelanguagesinquestionaredifferent.Suchuserscouldalsobeawareofboththestructuresandinternalrules,yetbeinsufficientlyskilledtoputthemintopractice,andconsequentlyoftenfallbackontheirfirstlanguage.
[edit]Languagetransferincomprehension
Transfercanalsooccurin polyglot individualswhencomprehendingverbalutterancesorwrittenlanguage.Forinstance, German and English bothhave relativeclauses witha noun-noun-verb (=NNV)orderbutwhichareinterpreteddifferentlyinbothlanguages:
Germanexample:
DasMädchen,dasdieFrauküsst,istblond
WordbywordthisGermanrelativeclause translates to
Englishexample:
Thegirlthatthewomaniskissingisblonde.
TheGermanandtheEnglishexamplesdifferinthatinGermanthe subject rolecanbetakenby dasMädchen (thegirl)or dieFrau (thewoman)whileintheEnglishexampleonlythesecond nounphrase (thewoman)canbethesubject.Inshort:
TheGermanexampleis syntactically ambiguous becauseitcanbe thegirlor thewoman whodoesthekissing.IntheEnglishexampleitcanonlybe thewoman whodoesthekissing.
TheambiguityoftheGermanNNVrelativeclausestructurebecomesobviousincaseswheretheassignmentof subject and object roleisdisambiguated.Thiscanbebecauseof casemarking ifoneofthenounsis grammaticallymale asin DerMann,dendieFrauküsst… (Themanthatthewomaniskissing…)vs. DerMann,derdieFrauküsst (Themanthatiskissingthewoman)becauseinGermanthemale definitearticle marksthe accusative case.ThesyntacticambiguityoftheGermanexamplealsobecomesobviousinthecaseof semantic disambiguation.Forinstancein DasEis,dasdieFrauisst… and DieFrau,diedasEisisst… (both:
Thewomanthatiseatingtheicecream)only dasEis (icecream)isaplausibleobject.
BecauseinEnglishrelativeclauseswithanoun-noun-verbstructure(asintheexampleabove)thefirstnouncanonlybethe object, nativespeakers ofEnglishwhospeakGermanasa secondlanguage aremorelikelytointerpretambiguousGermanNNVrelativeclausesasobjectrelativeclauses(=object-subject-verborder)thanGermannativespeakerswhopreferaninterpretationinwhichthefirstnounphraseisthesubject(subject-object-verborder).[11] Thisisbecausetheyhavetransferredtheir parsing preferencefromtheirfirstlanguageEnglishtotheirsecondlanguageGerman.
[edit]Examples
Languagetransferproducesdistinctiveformsoflearner English,dependingonthespeaker’sfirstlanguage.Someexamples,labeledwitha blend ofthenamesofthetwolanguagesinquestion,are:
▪Chinglish (Chinese)
▪Czenglish (Czech)
▪Denglisch (German)
▪Dunglish (Dutch)
▪Engrish or"Japlish"(Japanese)
▪Finglish (Finnish)
▪Franglais (French)
▪Hinglish (Hindi)
▪Konglish (Korean)
▪Manglish (Malaysian)
▪Poglish (Polish)
▪Porglish (Portuguese)
▪Runglish (Russian)
▪Serblish (Serbian)
▪Spanglish (Spanish)
▪Swenglish (Swedish)
▪Taglish (Tagalog)
▪Tanglish (Tamil)
▪Tinglish (Thai)
▪Turklish (Turkish)
▪Yinglish (Yiddish)
Similarinterferenceeffects,ofcourse,alsoinvolvelanguagesotherthan English,suchas French,and Spanish (Frespañol), Portuguese,and Spanish(Portuñol)or Catalan and Spanish (Catanyol).
Theseexamplescouldbemultipliedendlesslytoreflectthelinguisticinteractionsofspeakersofthethousandsofexistingorextinct languages.
Suchinterfered-languagenamesareoftenalsousedinformallytodenoteinstancesof code-switching, code-mixing,orborrowing(using loanwords).
[edit]Broadereffectsoflanguagetransfer
Withsustainedorintensecontactbetweennativeandnon-nativespeakers,theresultsoflanguagetransferinthenon-nativ
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