The effective teacher of reading.docx
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The effective teacher of reading.docx
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Theeffectiveteacherofreading
Theeffectiveteacherofreading:
Consideringhowtogiveinstructions
中文摘要:
众所周知,在有效地帮助学生提高阅读能力的过程中老师扮演着至关重要的角色。
当达菲海丝特(1999)注意到教师在帮助孩子提高阅读能力上所起的作用时说道:
“教师在帮助孩子提高阅读能力时所起的作用远远超过任何单一的、固定的阅读程序,方式或方法”。
本文在分析当前英语教学研究趋势的基础上,阐述了“教师在教授阅读时应该首先考虑到那些问题?
设计阅读活动的原则和教师应该掌握哪些阅读教学的策略以及在教学中如何有效地应用这些策略”。
关键词:
阅读能力教师指导指导原则阅读策略
Abstract:
Asisknowntoallthatteachersplayancriticalroleintheprocessofhelpingstudentstoimprovetheirreadingability..Duffy-Hester(1999)perhapsstateditbestwhenshenotedtheroletheteacherplayedinhelpingchildrenlearntoread:
“Iamconvincedthattheteacherismoreimportantandhasagreaterimpactthananysingle,fixedreadingprogram,method,orapproach”.Ourpurposeinthisarticleistoattempttoanswerthecrucialquestions“Whatconsiderationsshouldbeknownbyteachersofreading?
Whatprinciplesshouldteachersofreadingobey?
Whatteachingstrategiesmustteachersofreadingbeabletoperformandhowarethesestrategieseffectivelyappliedinteachingchildrentoread?
”
Keywords:
ReadingabilityTeachers’instructionReadingStrategies
1.Introduction:
Iflearningtoreadeffectivelyisajourneytowardever-increasingabilitytocomprehendtexts,thenteachersarethetourguides.Recognitionofthesignificantroleoftheteacherisnotnew.Earlystudiesoneffectiveteaching,however,yieldedlittlespecificinformationaboutexactlywhatteachersdointheclassroomandhowtheydomakesthemeffective.Itmayseemstereotypicaltoemphasizetheobviousfactthatteachingchildrentoreadishardworkanddemandsagreatdealofeffort,but
theabilitytoputfortheffortintheclassroomischaracteristicofaneffectiveteacher.However,itisnotjusteffortalone.Itisexactlyonwhattheeffortisfocusedandhowthiseffortisexpendedthatmakesthedifference.Whatfollowsisabriefreviewofthepast20yearsofmajorinvestigationsthatspecifywhatgoesoninclassroomsofteacherswhopromotestudentlearningandgrowth.Thepurposeinthisarticleistoattempttoanswerseveralcrucialquestions“Whatconsiderationsshouldteachersknowinteachingreading?
Whatprinciplesshouldteachersobeyforeffectivereadinginstructionandwhatreadingstrategiesmustteachersofreadingbeabletoperformandhowarethesestrategieseffectivelyappliedinteachingchildrentoread?
”
2.ResearchonReadingComprehension
Bythe1970s,firstlanguagereadingresearchhadbeenflourishingforacoupleofdecades,assolutionsweresoughttoproblemsofwhysomechildrencouldn’tread.Butresearchonreadinginasecondlanguagewasalmostnonexistent.Then,withtheworkofKennethGoodman(1970)andothers,secondlanguagespecialistsbegantotackletheuniqueissuesandquestionsfacingsecondlanguagereadingpedagogy.Findingsarebrieflysummarizedasfollows:
(1)Readingisapsycholinguisticguessinggame(Goodman);
(2)Schematheoryandbackgroundknowledge(ClarkeandSilberstein);(3)TheTransferHypothesis(Cziko1978);(4)Cross-Cultureaspectsofreadingcomprehension.
3.ConsiderationsinTeachingReading
Most foreignlanguage readingspecialistsviewreadingasinteractive.Thereaderinteractswiththetexttocreatemeaningasthereader'smentalprocessesworktogetheratdifferentlevels(Bernhardt,1986;Carrell,Devine&Eskey,1988;Rumelhart,1977).Theabilitytoteachstudentswhattheyneedtoknowrequiresthatreadingteacherscontinuallyuseablendofformalandinformalmeasurestoidentifystudents’strengthsandweaknessesininteractingwithtext(Barrentine,1999).Teachersshouldprovideinstructionthatreflectsthestudents’levelofreadingdevelopment.Therefore,inourdiscussionofteachingreadingtoourstudents,teachershavetoconsiderthefollowingfactorsasinterest,usefulness,readiness,purpose,expectationandauthenticityandsoforth.Inotherwords,thelevelofreadercomprehensionofthetextisdeterminedbymanyfactors(interestlevelinthetext,purposeforreadingthetext,knowledgeofthetopic, foreignlanguage abilities,awarenessofthereadingprocess,andlevelofwillingnesstotakerisks)andhowreadersknowaboutthetextvariables(texttype,structure,syntax,andvocabulary)(Hosenfeld,1979).
4.PrinciplesforDesigningInteractiveReadingActivities
4.1Don’toverlooktheimportanceofspecificinstructions.
Weteachersliketoassumethatstudentswillsimplylearngoodreadingbyabsorption.While,inreality,thereismuchtobegainedbyyourfocusingonreadingskill.Itisimportanttomakesurethatyourstudentshaveampletimeforextensivereading.Itisyourdutyasteacherstogivestudentssuffientguidance.
4.2Usemotivatingtechniques
Thatistosay,yourtechniquesshouldbeintrinsicallymotivating.Onecanchooseinterestingandsomerelevantreadingforyourstudents,Thereadingcontextsshoulebeinproperlengthsothatyourstudentswon’tlosswillingness.Inaddition,makeclearyourstudents’goalinlearningtoreadEnglishandfocusthosegoalsinteaching.
4.3Balanceauthenticityandreadabilityinchoosingtexts
Simpletextsthatareauthenticcaneitherbefoundoutthereintherealworldordevised.Fromadstolablestoreportstoessays,textsareavailablethataregrammaticallyandlexicallysimple.
4.4Encouragereadingstrategies
Followingaresomestrategiesforreadingcomprehension.
Firstly,therearetenreadingstrategiesdevelopedbyBrown:
1)Indentifythepurposeinreading;2)Usegraphiticrulesandpatternstoaidinbottom-updecoding;3)Useefficientsilentreadingtechniquesforrelativelyrapidcomprehension;4)Skimming;5)Scanning;6)Semanticmappingorclustering;7)Guessing;8)Vocabularyanalysis;9)Distinguishbetweenliteralandimpliedmeaning;10)Capitalizeondiscoursemarkerstoprocessrelationships.
Auseful,ifsomewhatdisorganized,typologyofreadingstrategiesisthatdevelopedbyGrellet(1981:
12-13):
Sensitizing;improvingreadingspeed;goingfromskimmingtoscanning.Sensitizingcanbesubcategorizedinto(makinginferences;understandingrelationswithinthesentence;linkingsentencesandideas).Goingfromskimmingtoscanningincludes(predicting;preview;anticipation;skimmingandscanning)
4.5Includebothbottom-upandtop-downtechniques
Inthecaseofreading,aswithothercognitiveprocesses,psychologistshave
distinguishedbetweentwokindsofprocessing.Bottom-upprocessesarethosethattakeinstimulifromtheoutsideworld--lettersandwords,forreadinganddealwiththatinformationwithlittlerecoursetohigher-levelknowledge.Bottom-uptheorieshypothesizethatlearningtoreadprogressesfromchildrenlearningthepartsoflanguage(letters)tounderstandingthewholetext(meaning).Muchlikesolvingajigsawpuzzle,bottom-upmodelsofthereadingprocesssaythatthereadingpuzzleissolvedbybeginningwithanexaminationofeachpieceofthepuzzleandthenputtingpiecestogethertomakeapicture.Withtop-downprocesses,ontheotherhand,theuptakeofinformationisguidedbyanindividual’spriorknowledgeandexpectations.Tobespecific,top-downprocessingoflanguagehappenswhensomeoneusesbackgroundinformationtopredictthemeaningoflanguagetheyaregoingtoread.Ratherthanrelyingfirstontheactualwordsorsounds(bottomup),theydevelopexpectationsaboutwhattheywillhearorread,andconfirmorrejecttheseastheylistenorread.Top-downprocessingisthoughttobeaneffectivewayofprocessinglanguage;itmakesthemostofwhatthepersonbringstothesituation.Forinstance,askinglearnerstopredictwhatanewspaperarticlemightbeaboutfromtheheadlineorfirstsentencewillencouragethemtousetop-downprocessingonthearticle.Inmostsituations,bottom-upandtop-downprocessesworktogethertoensuretheaccurateandrapidprocessingofinformation.Thebestreadersinanylanguagearethosewhocombineelementsofboth.Forexample,mostreadersbeginreadingbyusing top-downreadingstrategies untilthereisaproblem,andthentheyshifttobottom-upstrategies.Intheclassroom,youcanencourageyourlearnerstouseboth bottom-up andtop-downstrategiestohelpthemunderstandatext.Forexampleinareadingcomprehensionlearnersusetheirknowledgeofthegenre topredictwhatwillbeinthetext(topdown),andtheirunderstandingof affixation toguessmeaning(bottomup).
4.6Subdivideyourtechniquesintopre,whileandafterreadingphases.
(1)Beforeyouread:
"Pre-reading"activitiesintroducestudentstoaparticulartext,elicitorprovideappropriatebackgroundknowledge,and activatenecessaryschemata.Previewingatextwithstudentsshouldarousetheirinterestandhelpthemapproachthetextinamoremeaningfulandpurposefulmannerasthediscussioncompelsthemtothinkaboutthesituationorpointsroseinatext.Thepre-readingphasehelpsstudentsdefineselectioncriteriaforthecentralthemeofastoryorthemajorargumentofanessay.Pre-readingactivitiesinclude:
discussingauthorortexttype,brainstorming,reviewingfamiliarstories,consideringillustrationsandtitles,skimmingandscanning(forstructure,mainpoints,andfuture directions).
(2)Whileyouread:
"Whilereading"exerciseshelpstudentsdevelop readingstrategies,improvetheircontrolofthesecondlanguage,anddecodeproblematictextpassages.Theteachercanpinpointvaluablestrategies,explainwhichstrategiesindividualsmostneedtopractice,andofferconcreteexercisesintheformof"guidedreading"activitysheets.Suchpracticeexercisesmightincludeguessingwordmeaningsbyusingcontextclues,wordformationclues,orcognatepractice;consideringsyntaxandsentencestructurebynotingthegrammaticalfunctionsofunk
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