战略和企业家.docx
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战略和企业家.docx
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战略和企业家
STRATEGYANDENTREPRENEURSHIP:
OUTLINESOFANUNTOLDSTORY
SarasD.Sarasvathy
UniversityofWashington
S.Venkataraman
UniversityofVirginia
InvitedbookchapterintheStrategicManagementHandbookeditedbyHittet.al.
(RevisedDecember10,2000)
Inhisbook“Invention,”ProfessorNorbertWiener(1993),commentingontherelativeimportanceaccordedtoindividualsandinstitutionsinhistoricalnarrativesofscienceandinventions,asksustoimagineShakespeare’s“RomeoandJuliet”withouteitherRomeoorthebalcony.Thestoryisjustnotthesame.Helikensmuchofthestudyoftheeconomichistoryofscienceandaccountsofinventionsas“allbalconyandnoRomeo.”ThebalconyforNorbertWienercapturesthecontextinwhichthestoryunfolds–theculture,theinstitutions,theconstraintsandthecatalyststhatmovetheplotforwardandthickenit.Romeos,forWiener,playtheleadingpartsinthestory,becausethereisastrongfortuitouselementtoinventionsandthereisnoinevitabilitythatapossiblediscoverywillbemadeatagiventimeandspace.Takeawayeitherone,Romeoorthebalcony,andthewholestoryfallsapart.Inasimilarvein,wewouldlikenstudiesofstrategicmanagementto“allbalconyandnoRomeo.”Butifweaccusestrategicmanagementofbeing“allbalconyandnoRomeo,”strategicmanagementscholarscouldlegitimatelyaccuseentrepreneurshipofbeing“allRomeoandnobalcony.”
InthischapterwewishtosuggestapointofviewfromentrepreneurshipthatwillallowstrategicmanagementscholarstoaccommodatemoreRomeosintheirstories.Althoughthesetwofieldshavemuchtooffereachother(tradeinbalconiesandRomeos),theyhavedevelopedlargelyindependentofeachother.Wewishtosuggestthatentrepreneurshiphasaroletoplayinstrategicmanagementtheoryandthatstrategicmanagementtheoryenrichesourunderstandingoftheentrepreneurialprocess,althoughthislatteraspectwillnotbethefocusofthischapter.
Oneusefulwayofthinkingaboutentrepreneurshipisthatitisconcernedwithunderstandinghow,intheabsenceofmarketsforfuturegoodsandservices,thesegoodsandservicesmanagetocomeintoexistence(Venkataraman,1997).Totheextentvalueisembodiedinproductsandservices,entrepreneurshipisconcernedwithhowtheopportunitytocreate“value”insocietyisdiscoveredandacteduponbysomeindividuals.AsWienerhasnoted(Wiener,1993:
7),atthebeginningstagesofanewidea,theeffectivenessoftheindividualisenormous:
“Beforeanynewideacanariseintheoryandpractice,somepersonorpersonsmusthaveintroduceditintheirownminds…Theabsenceoforiginalmind,eventhoughitmightnothaveexcludedacertainelementofprogressinthedistantfuture,maywelldelayitforfiftyyearsoracentury.”
Thefieldofstrategicmanagementcanbeusefullydescribedashavingtodowiththe“methods”usedtocreatethis“value”andtheensuingstruggletocaptureasignificantshareofthat“value”byindividualsandfirms.Thus,ifweunderstandentrepreneurshipandstrategicmanagementasthefieldsthattogetherseektodescribe,explain,predictandprescribehowvalueisdiscovered,created,captured,andperhapsdestroyed,thenthereisnotonlymuchthatwecanlearnfromeachother,buttogetherwerepresenttwosidesofthesamecoin:
thecoinofvaluecreationandcapture.
Onesideofthecoin,namelystrategicmanagement,hastodowiththeachievementofends–obtainingmarketshare,profit,andsustainedcompetitiveadvantage.Theothersideofthecoin,namelyentrepreneurship,hastodowiththeachievementofbeginnings–creatingproducts,firms,andmarkets.Buttheclarityandcomplexitywithwhichanauthorconnectsbeginningsandendsiswhatmakesagreatstory.Webelievethereallyinterestingstorybetweenstrategicmanagementandentrepreneurshiphasnotyetbeentold.Themainreasonforthisisthatingeneral,creationcallsforverydifferentmodesofthinkingandbehaviorthancaptureandsustenanceovertime.Yetthecreationprocessnotonlydeterminescertainpowerfultendenciesforsurvivalandgrowth,butsomeelementsofitalsopersistoverlongperiodsoftime,subtlyandsubstantiallyinfluencingtheselectionandachievementoflaterends.Carefullybearinginmindthatlargeexpansesofstrategicmanagementmayhavenooverlapwithentrepreneurship,thischapterneverthelessfocusesexclusivelyonwhereentrepreneurshipandstrategicmanagementoverlap.
Intheprefacetotheir1994book,Rumelt,Schendel,andTeeceidentifythesubjectmatterofstrategicmanagementas"thepurposefuldirectionandnaturalevolutionofenterprises."(Rumelt,et.al.,1994)Theyfurtheridentifyfourfundamentalissuesthatcomprisearesearchagendainstrategicmanagement:
1.FirmBehavior
Howdofirmsbehave?
Or,dofirmsreallybehavelikerationalactors,and,ifnot,whatmodelsoftheirbehaviorshouldbeusedbyresearchersandpolicymakers?
2.FirmDifferentiation
Whyarefirmsdifferent?
Or,whatsustainstheheterogeneityinresourcesandperformanceamongclosecompetitorsdespitecompetitionandimitativeattempts?
3.FirmScope
Whatisthefunctionoforvalueaddedbytheheadquartersunitinadiversifiedfirm?
Or,whatlimitsthescopeofthefirm?
4.FirmPerformance
Whatdeterminessuccessorfailureininternationalcompetition?
Or,whataretheoriginsofsuccessandwhataretheirparticularmanifestationsininternationalsettingsorglobalcompetition?
Inansweringthefourquestionsstatedabove,economicsandstrategicmanagementtheoriesgenerallytendtofocusonrationaldecisionmaking(whetherunboundedorboundedandlinearornon-linear)basedoncausalreasoningandthelogicofprediction.Ourexplicationofentrepreneurship,however,restsuponcreativeactionbasedoneffectualreasoningandthelogicofcontrol.
Wehaveelsewhereidentifiedthesubjectmatterofentrepreneurshipashavingtodowiththeexploitationofopportunitiesforcreatinghithertonon-existenteconomicartifacts(Venkataraman,1997;ShaneandVenkataraman,2000;SarasvathyandSimon,2000;Sarasvathy,2001).Dependinguponthecompletenessand/orconsistencyofthelargerenvironment,entrepreneurialopportunitiesmayhavetoberecognizedordiscoveredorcreated.Inthischapter,wefirstexaminethesethreetypesofactionconnectedwithentrepreneurialopportunitiesthroughaframeworkbasedonthepreconditionsfortheirexistence.Thereafter,weexplorethefourfundamentalissuesofstrategicmanagementlistedabovefroman"entrepreneurialopportunity"perspective.
ENTREPRENEURIALOPPORTUNITIES
TheOxfordEnglishDictionarydefinesopportunityas“atime,juncture,orconditionofthingsfavorabletoanendorpurpose,oradmittingofsomethingbeingdoneoreffected.”Asisclearfromthisdefinition,attheminimum,anopportunityinvolvesanendorpurpose,andthingsfavorabletotheachievementofit.Anentrepreneurialopportunityconsistsoftheopportunitytocreatefutureeconomicartifactsandassuch,involvesademandside,asupplysideandthemeanstobringthemtogether.Therefore,inthecaseofanentrepreneurialopportunity,the“thingsfavorable”consistoftwocategories:
(a)beliefsaboutthefuture;and(b)actionsbasedonthosebeliefs.Insum,anentrepreneurialopportunityconsistsof:
1.Supplyside:
Neworexistingidea/sorinvention/s;
2.Demandside:
Oneormoreends–maybesubjective(endogenous)aspirationsorobjective(exogenous)goalsorboth;
3.Beliefsaboutthingsfavorabletotheachievementofthoseends;and,
4.Possibleimplementationsofthoseendsthroughthecreationofneweconomicartifacts.
Atthispoint,itisimportanttonotethatentrepreneurialopportunitiesexistatalllevelsoftheeconomy–individual,corporate,andmacroeconomic.Forexample,theinventionoftheinternetnotonlyledtotheidentificationandcreationofentrepreneurialopportunitiesforindividualsandfirms,butalsoopportunitiesfortheUSeconomyasawholeintermsofmoreeffectiveglobalization.Similarly,AdamSmith'sexpositionofthe"invisiblehand"guidedbotheconomicpolicyatthegovernmentlevelaswellasthedecisionsofindividualeconomicagentsandfirmsinthecreationof"freemarket"institutions.
Butentrepreneurialopportunitiesareextremelycontextspecific.WhatmightbeanopportunitytodayintheUkrainemaynotbeanopportunityatallintheUStodayorevenintheUkrainetomorrow.Thismeansthatentrepreneurialopportunitiesdonotnecessarilyliearoundwaitingtobediscoveredbytheserendipitousentrepreneurwhostumblesuponthemoreventobe“divined”byentrepreneurialgeniuses,ifanysuchgeniusesexist.Instead,entrepreneurialopportunitiesareoftenresidualsofhumanactivitiesinnon-economicspheresandemergecontingentuponconsciousactionsbyentrepreneurswhocontinuallystrivetotransformtheoutputsofthosenon-economicactivitiesintonewproductsandfirmsandintheprocessfulfilandtransformhumanaspirationsintonewmarkets.
Inotherwords,beforethereareproductsandfirms,thereishumanimagination;andbeforetherearemarkets,therearehumanaspirations.Creativeoutputsofthehumanimaginationineveryrealmofhumanactionbeittheartsorthesciences,sportsorphilosophy,becomeinputsfortheeconomicdomain.Itisanempiricalfactthatprofitsfortheindividualandthefirm,andwelfarefortheeconomycomeasmuchfromJerrySeinfeld’sjokesandMichaelJordan’sbaskets,asfromgreattechnologicalinventionsandthetearingdownoftheBerlinwall.Similarly,humanaspirationsmayrangefromcareergoalsandindividualprosperitytofreedomandjusticeandthegoodlifeforallandpeaceonea
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