软件产业和印度的经济发展论文外文翻译.docx
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软件产业和印度的经济发展论文外文翻译.docx
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软件产业和印度的经济发展论文外文翻译
目录Ⅲ
外文原稿1……………………………………………………………………2
中文译文1……………………………………………………………………8
外文原稿2……………………………………………………………………12
中文译文2……………………………………………………………………17
外文翻译之一
CompetitionandCooperationinIndustrialCluster:
TheImplicationforPublicPolicy
DavidNewlands
English
EuropeanPlanningStudies,Vol.11,No.5(2003)
2.IndustrialClusters:
ACriticalReadingofDifferentTheories
2.1StandardAgglomerationTheory,FromMarshallOnwards
Marshall,inhiswritingsonSheffield,LancashireandotherBritishregions,viewedthemainsourceofexternaleconomiesasthe‘commons’,theinfrastructureandotherservicesfromwhicheachindividualfirminanindustrialdistrictmightdraw(Marshall,1921).Examplesinclude,inmodernterminology,improvedjobsearchandjobmatching,morefavorableaccesstocapitalfinanceandinter-firmlabormigration.Theavailabilityofsuchcommonresourcestoanumberoffirmsthenenhancestheirsizeanddiversityasbothcapitalandlaborareattractedtosuchareastoexploitthelargermarketsfortheirservices.Thisinturnleadstoreductionsinfactorpricesand/orincreasesinfactorproductivities.Thesearethewaysinwhichtheexternalbenefittofirmsofalocationintheindustrialdistrictmanifestsitself.Unitproductioncostswillbelowerwithintheindustrialdistrictthanoutwithit.
Paralleltohisstudiesofindustrialorganization,inthevariouseditionsofhisPrinciplesofEconomics,Marshall(1890,1920)helpeddevelopwhatwastobecomestandardagglomerationtheory.Thiswasthenbuiltuponsubsequentlybyanumberofwriters.Forexample,Scitovsky(1954)identifiedafurthercategoryof‘pecuniaryexternaleconomies’,Perroux(1955)contributedhisfamoustheoryofgrowthpoles,andChinitz(1961)appliedthenotionofagglomerationeconomiestotheeconomicdevelopmentofNewYorkandPittsburgh.Morerecently,Krugman(1991,1995)hasemphasizedtheimportanceofincreasingreturnsasafavorableconditionforthedevelopmentofexternaleconomies.Porter(1990)canalsobeunderstoodasbelongingtothislineageinthesensethatexternaleconomiesmakeupmanyofthekeyrelationshipswithinhisfamous‘diamond’.
Standardagglomerationtheoryprovidesanexplanationofwhyfirmsmightclustertogether,sharinga‘commons’ofbusinessservicesandadiversifiedlabourforce,andformingextensivelocallinkageswithotherfirms.However,itconformstoneo-classicaltheoryinthatlocaleconomiesareviewedascollectionsofatomisticbusinesses,awareofoneanothersolelythroughtheintermediationofprice/costsignals.FirmscontinuetocompetewitheachotheralthoughMarshallwaskeentowarnoftherisksthatfirms’collaboration,inthedevelopmentofsharedinputs,riskedbluntingcompetitiveforces.
2.2TransactionCosts:
The‘CalifornianSchool’
Inthewritingsofthe‘Californianschool’,thedisintegrationofproductivesystemsleadstoanincreaseinfirms’transactioncosts(Scott&Storper,1986;Scott,1988;Storper,1989).Changesinmarketandtechnologicalconditionshaveledtoincreaseduncertaintyandgreaterrisksofovercapacity(oflabourandcapital)andofbeinglockedintoredundanttechnologies.
Theresponseofdeepeningtheorganizationaldivisionoflabourleadstoanincreaseinthenumberofformalmarkettransactionsexternaltothefirm.Theremayalsobeanincreaseintheunpredictabilityandcomplexityoftransactions.Thecostsofcarryingoutcertaintypesoftransaction—especiallythosewheretacitknowledgeisimportantortrustisrequiredandthuscompletecontractingisimpossible—variessystematicallywithdistance.Thus,agglomerationistheresultoftheminimizationofthesetypesoftransactionscostsinasituationwheresuchminimizationoutweighsotherproductioncostdifferentials.
TheCalifornianschoolsoughttoexplainobservedagglomerationsofeconomicactivity.Theargumentcenteredonthelocalizationoftradedinterdependencies—orsimpleinput–outputrelations—butthisisatbestonlyapartialexplanation,notleastinbeingunabletodistinguishconvincinglybetween‘good’and‘bad’agglomerations.Agglomerationshavebeenfoundinhighwage,technologicallyadvancedindustriesandlowwagetechnologicallystagnantonesalikewhiletherearetechnologicallydynamicagglomerationswhichlackthedenseinter-firmlinkagesandcoordinatinginstitutionsofa‘newindustrialdistrict’.
Norisitclearwhethermarketswillsucceedincoordinatingtransactionswithinclusters(Cooke&Morgan,1993).Themanagementoftradedinterdependenciesisexactlywhatwethinkofasthebusinessofmarketsbuttheremayneverthelessbemarketfailure.Thus,certain“transactions—inlabormarkets,ininter-firmrelations,ininnovationandknowledgedevelopment—tendedtohavepointsoffailureintheabsenceofappropriateinstitutions”(Storper,1995,p.199).Withthisconcernfortheinstitutionalarrangementswithinclusters,the‘Californianschool’cametosharecertainoftheargumentsoftheflexiblespecializationtheoristswhoarediscussednextandtheinstitutionalandevolutionaryeconomistswhoareconsideredshortly.
2.3FlexibleSpecialization,TrustandUntradedInterdependencies
Whileneo-classicaleconomicsviewsfirmsasatomisticbusinesses,awareofoneanotheronlythroughformalmarketsignals,modernindustrialdistricttheoryemphasizestheinterdependenceoffirms,flexiblefirmboundaries,andtheimportanceoftrustincreatingandsustainingcollaborationbetweeneconomicactorswithinthedistricts.
Thesethemesarosefirstintheliteratureonflexiblespecializationinthe‘ThirdItaly’(Brusco,1982)butwaslaterextendedtoBaden-Wu¨rtembergandotherregions(Piore&Sabel,1984).Thesourcesofflexibilitylayincollaborativenetworksof(mostly)smallfirmsandsupportinginstitutions.Thesenetworkspermittedtheestablishmentoftrustbetweenactors,acrucialargumentwithinmostcontemporaryapproachestoclusters.Thereasoningisthatfirmswithinnetworksoftrustbenefitfromthereciprocalexchangeofinformation—particularlytacitinformationthatcannotbecodified—butaresimultaneouslyboundbytiesofobligationwhichregulatebehavior.Trustthusreinforcesmutuallybeneficialrelationshipsbetweenfirms.Theimplicitassumptionisthattrustismorelikelytobesustainedingeographicallyconcentratednetworksthanmoredispersedones(Belussi,1996).
Firmsmaycooperateinseekingtogetnewworkandmaybidtogetheronlargeprojects.Theymayformconsortiatoaccesscheaperfinance.Theymayjointlypurchasematerialsandconductorcommissionjointresearch.Theymayplantogetherandreceivetechnical,financialandotherservicesfromthe‘commons’.However,despitealltheseexamplesofcooperativerelationships,foundedonorreinforcedbytrust,becausetheyremainprivatelyownedbusinesses,firmswithinclusterscontinuetocompete,withoneanotherandwithotherfirms,oftenmoreonqualitythanprice.
Theembeddingofeconomicrelationsintoawidersocialframeworkappearstobemostcommonwherebusinessactivityisconditionedbylocalpolitics,religionandclosekinshipandfriendshiprelationships.Thus,“itisprobablynotacoincidencethatthemostsuccessfuldistrictshavetendedtobethemostraciallyandculturallyhomogeneous”(Harrison,1992,p.479).Equally,national(orotherbroader)economic,legalandpolicytraditionsarerelevant.Thedevelopmentofinter-firmcooperationismorelikelyinsomecountries,suchasItaly,thaninothers,suchastheUK,becauseofdifferencesintheoperationoflabormarketsandcompetitionpolicy.
AccordingtotheoristssuchasGranovetter(1985),trustarisesfromthe‘digestion’ofexperience.Trustaccumulatesfromrepeatedinteractionsbetweenfirmsandotheractorsinwhichtheycontractandrecontract,formallyandinformally,strikedeals,andhelpeachotheroutattimesofcrisis.Trustresultsfromaprocessoflearningthroughexperiencewhichactorscanbereliedupon.Personalcontactfacilitatessuchrepeatedinteractionsandthisinturnislikelytodependonproximity.Thisfocusonuntradedinterdependenciesisverydifferenttothetransactionscostsapproachtoagglomeration.Thelatterconcernsthecostminimizationoftradedrelationswhileuntradedinterdependenciespointtowiderprocessesoftheoptimizationofnon-marketornon-contractexchanges(Raco,1999).
Finally,itisimportanttonotethatuntradedinterdependenciescannotonlyfacilitateeffectivecollectivelearningandactionbutalsoimpedeit.Especiallywherefamiliarconventionsbecomewellestablished,‘sclerosis’cansetin.Areascanbecomelockedintooutdatedandinferiortechnologiesandinstitutions.
2.4InnovativeMilieux:
TheGREMIGroup
Therehavebeenvariousschoolsofthoughtontherelationshipbetweeninnovation,hightechnologyindustryandregionaldevelopment.OnelineofenquiryhasfocusedontheconditionsfortheestablishmentandgrowthofsuchhightechnologycomplexesasSiliconValleyandRoute128.Whilemanyfactorshavebeenidentified,themostdiscussedistheroleoflocalresearchintensiveuniversities,StanfordinthecaseofSiliconValleyandMITinthecaseofRoute128.Alargeliteratureontherelationshipbetweeninnovation,researchuniversitiesandregionaldevelopmenthasbeenspawned(Saxenian,1985;Castells&Hall,1994;Storper,1993).
Anotherdirectionofresearchhasbeeninpursuitofthenotionofaninnovativemilieu,thekeytheoreticalconceptoftheGREMI(GroupementEurope′endesMilieuxInnovateurs)groupofregionaleconomists(Aydalot&Keeble,1988;Camagni,1995).Clusteringenablesfirmstobenefitfroma‘collectivelearningprocess’,operating“throughskilledlabormobilitywithinthe
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