克拉申二语习得五假说.docx
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克拉申二语习得五假说.docx
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克拉申二语习得五假说
Krashen'sfivehypothesis
——Krashen'sMonitorTheory
Fivebasichypotheses:
1)TheAcquisition-LearningHypothesis
Acquisition:
naturally,subconscious,
informal,
Learning:
consciously,formal,'knowaboutthesecondlanguage,analysisandcorrectionoferrorsformallyandexplicitlyaddressed.
Krashensupportsthisclaimasfollows:
(i)therecanbeacquisitionwithoutlearning.
Competentlanguagelearnersmay
speakthelanguagewithoutconsciously
knowingtherules.
(ii)therearecaseswherepeoplecan'know'arulebutdonotuseitinnormal
interaction.
(iii)inanycase,nobodyknowsalltherulesofalanguage.GrammaticalexplanationseveninlanguagesaswidelystudiedasEnglishdonotcoverthelargelyunconsciouslyknowledgeofanative-speaker.Itoftentakeslinguistsyearstodescriberuleswhicharerelativelyeasilyacquired(Ellis1985).
AcquisitionandLearningarenotdefinedby'where'asecondlanguageoccurs.Formallearninginthestreet.Thedistinctionisacentralideaineducationtheory:
betweendeductive(推理:
fromgeneraltoparticular)andinductive(归纳)approaches;classroomandnaturalisticlearning;formalandinformallanguagelearning.
2)TheNaturalOrderHypothesis
Grammaticalstructuresareacquiredinapredictableorderforbothchildrenandadults,irrespectiveofthelanguagebeinglearnt.Somerulestendtocomeearlyandotherslate.Theorderdoesnotappeartobedeterminedsolelybyformalsimplicityandthereisevidencethatitisindependentoftheorderinwhichrulesaretaughtinlanguageclasses.
Whenalearnerengagesinnaturalcommunication,thenthestandardorderwilloccur.
3)TheMonitorHypothesis
TheMonitorisaneditingdevicethatmayoperatebeforelanguageperformance.UtterancesmaybemodifiedbybeingacteduponbytheMonitoroflearntknowledge.Sucheditingmayoccurbeforethenaturaloutputofspeech;itmayoccuraftertheoutputviaacorrectingdevice.
Krashensuggeststhatmonitoringoccurswhenthereissufficienttime,whenthereispressuretocommunicatecorrectlyandnotjustconveymeaning,andwhentheappropriaterulesofspeechareknown.
Putittheotherway:
1)theremustbetimeforaspeakertouse
consciousruleseffectively.Normal
conversationdoesnotallowforthis
monitoring.
2)timealoneisnotenough.Thespeaker'sattentionmustalsobefocusedonForm.
3)thespeakermustknowtherulebeforethemonitorcanbeused.
Examplesincludeknowingthecorrecttensetouse,whentousethethirdorfirstpersonandrulesaboutplurals.Thishypothesishasbeencriticizedforbeinguntestableandforalackofsupportiveresearchevidence.
4)TheInputHypothesis
Toexplainhowlanguageacquisitionoccurs,Krashenproposesthatwhenlearnersareexposedtogrammaticalfeaturesalittlebeyondtheircurrentlevel,thosefeaturesare'acquired'.Krashenemphasizesthat'acquisition'istheresultofcomprehensiblelanguageinputandnotoflanguageproduction.Inputismade
comprehensiblebecauseofthehelpprovidedbythecontext.Ifthelanguagestudentreceivesunderstandableinput,languagestructureswillbe,accordingtoKrashen,naturallyacquired.ForKrashen,theabilitytocommunicateinasecondlanguage'emerges'ratherthanisdirectlyputinplacebyteaching.Secondlanguage
issaidtobecausedbytheprocessofunderstandingsecondlanguageinput.
Krashenlistsanumberoflinesofevidencetosupporttheinputhypothesis:
⊙thesilentperiod:
thisisbasedonthefactthatchildreninanL2situationsometimesremainsilentforseveralweeks.Similarly,youngchildrenareexposedtotheirmothertongue(andobviouslyunderstandit)beforetheybegintospeak.
⊙agedifference:
youngerlearnersmaygetmorecomprehensibleinputbecausetheytendtoengagein'here-and-now'interactions.Olderlearnersmaymakefasterprogressinitially,however,becausetheyareexposedtomorecomprehensibleinputthankstotheirbroaderworldknowledgeandbecauseofthecommunicativestrategiestheyhavealreadydevelopedintheirL1.
⊙theeffectofexposure:
themorelearnersareexposedtocomprehensibleinput,themoretheirlanguageproficiencydevelops.Learnerswhodonothaveaccesstocomprehensibleinputareheldupintheirdevelopment.
⊙immersion,bilingualandshelteredlanguageteaching:
studentsintheseprogramslearneffectivelybecausetheyreceivecomprehensibleinputwherethefocusisonthesubjectmatterbeingtaughtratherthantheformofthelanguage.
⊙simplecodes(caretakerspeech,motherese,foreignertalk,etc.)provideidealinputbecause(a)theyareusedtocommunicatemeaning,notform,(b)theyareroughlytunedtothelearners'currentleveloflinguisticcompetence,andtheyfollowthe'here-and-now'principlewhichhelpsthelearnersunderstand.
⊙theeffectsofinstruction:
instructionishelpfulwhenitistheprimarysourceofcomprehensibleinput.Formalinstructionisonlyhelpfulbecauseitissourceofcomprehensibleinput.Methodsthatfocusoncomprehensibleinputareassumedtobesuperiortogrammar-basedordrill-basedmethodswhichfocusonlearning
Inputislanguagewhichalearnerhearsorreceivesandfromwhichhe/shecanlearn.Intakeisinputwhichisactuallyintegratedintothelearner'sinterlanguage.
'speakersacquirelanguageinonlyoneway–byunderstandingmessages,orbyreceiving'comprehensible(orbetterstillcomprehended)input'…Wemovefromi,ourcurrentlevel,toi+1,thenextlevelalongthenaturalorder,byunderstandinginputcontainingi+1'.
5)TheAffectiveFilterHypothesis
AnaffectivefilterwasproposedbyDulay&Burt(1977)withtheideathatthereisafilterthatdetermineshowmuchapersonlearnsinaformalorinformallanguagesetting.Thefiltercomprisesaffectivefactorssuchasattitudestolanguage,motivation,self-confidenceandanxiety.
Thuslearnerswithfavorableattitudesandself-confidencemayhave'alowfilter'withconsequentefficientsecondlanguagelearning.Thosewithunfavourableattitudesand/orhighanxietyhave'highfilters'andsotheinputofsecondlanguagelearningmaybeblockedorimpeded.Theaffectivefilterproposed
byKrasheninfluencestherateofdevelopmentinsecondlanguagelearningandthelevelofsuccessinbecomingbilingual.
Krashen:
comprehensibleinputmaynotbeutilisedbysecondlanguageacquirersifthereisa'mentalblock'thatpreventsthemfromfullyprofitingfromit.Iftheaffectivebarrierisdown(i.e.whenthelearnerismotivated,confident,andnotanxious),comprehensibleinputreachestheLanguageAcquisitionDevice.
Theaffectivefilterhas4functions:
i)itdeterminestheselectionoflanguagemodels;
ii)itdetermineswhichpartofthelanguagewillbeattendedtofirst;
iii)itdetermineswhenlanguageacquisitioneffortsshouldcease;
iv)itdeterminesthespeedofacquisition
Summaryofthe5hypothesis
'Peopleacquiresecondlanguagesonlyiftheyobtaincomprehensibleinputandiftheiraffectivefiltersarelowenoughtoallowtheinput'in'.Whenthefilteris'down'andappropriatecomprehensibleinputispresented(andcomprehended),acquisitionisinevitable
Itis,infact,unavoidableandcannotbeprevented-thelanguage'mentalorgan'willfunctionjustasautomaticallyasanyotherorgan'
(Krashen1985:
4)
Krashen'stheoryappliedtotheclassroom
(discuss)
(1)thegoalofteachingmustbetosupplyunderstandableinputinorderforthechildoradulttoacquirelanguageeasily.Agoodteacherthereforeissomeonewhocontinuouslydeliversatalevelunderstandablebythesecondlanguagespeaker.
Justasfather/mothertalk(motherese)helpstheyoungchildtoacquirethefirstlanguagebyasimplifiedandcomprehensiblelanguage(andnonverballanguage),soaneffectiveteacherissaidtofacilitatesecondlanguagelearningbyensuringaclosematchbetweenthelevelofdeliveryandthelevelthatisunderstandable.
(2)teachingmustpreparethelearnerforreallifecommunicationsituations.Theclassroomneedstoprovideconversationalconfidencesothat,whenintheoutsideworld,thestudentcanbothlinguisticallycopeandcontinuelanguagelearning.
Languageandcommunicationarethetwosidesofthesamecoin.
Teachersshouldprovideopportunitiesforcommunication.McNamara(1973)hasarguedthat'thereallyimportantpartofmotivationliesintheactofcommunication.
Rossier(1975)alsoemphasizestheimportanceofadesiretocommunicate,arguingthatwithoutthis,students'motivationmaynotbeeffective.ItistheneedtogetmeaningsacrossandthepleasureexperiencedwhenthisisachievedthatprovidesthemotivationtolearnanL2.
Teachersalsoshouldprovideopportunitiesforgroupwork.
Teachersshouldtrytoensurethatstudents'interestisengenderedasaresultofagoodrapportwiththelearners.AsFinocchiaro(1981)putsit:
Themomentoftruth---theenhancementofmotivation---occurswhentheteacherclosestheclassroomdoor,greetshisstudentswithawarm,welcomingsmile,andproceedstointeractwithvariousindividualsbymakingcommentsoraskingquestionswhichindicatepersonalconcern.
(3)teachersmustensurethatlearnersdonotbecomeanxiousordefensiveinlanguagelearning.ThisrelatestotheAffectiveFilterhypothesis.Theconfidenceofthelearnermustbeencouragedinalanguageacquisitionprocess.
Whenalearnerisrelaxed,confidentandnotanxious,thentheinputoftheclassroomsituationwillbemoreefficientandeffective.Ifteachersinsistonchildrenconversingbeforetheyfeelcomfortableindoingso,orateacherconstantlycorrectserrorsandmakesnegativeremarks,thelearnermayfeelinhibitedinlearning.
(4)formalgrammarteachingisoflimitedvaluebecauseitcontributestolearni
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