GRE写作issue素材 5.docx
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GRE写作issue素材 5.docx
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GRE写作issue素材5
SectionFive:
Society
1. TheFunctionofArt
Arthasaneffectontheindividualandonaparticularcultureinasociety.Psychologically,artenhanceslifebyaddingbeautytooursurroundings.Itisasourceofpleasureandrelaxationfromthestressesoflife.Socially,artplaysanumberofdifferentrolesbyvirtueofitscapacitytoembodysymbolicsignificancetoitsaudience.
Artfulfilsanumberofimportantsocialfunctions.Itisusedtocommunicatethevariousstatuespeoplehold.Itcanplayaroleinregulatingeconomicactivities.Anditisalmostalwaysameansforexpressingimportantpoliticalandreligiousideasandforteachingprinciplesthatarevaluedinsociety.Theseandothersocialusesofartfunctiontopreservetheestablishedsocialorganizationofeachsociety.
StatusIndicators
Oneofthesocialfunctionsofartisthecommunicationofstatusdifferencesbetweenindividuals.Forinstance,genderdifferencesinbodydecorationsanddressaretypicalofculturesthroughouttheworld.Agedifferencesmaybesimilarlyindicated.Pubertyritualsoftenincludetattooing,scarificationofthebodyindecorativedesigns,orevenfillingoftheteethtobetweenchildrenandadults.Socialclassdifferencesincomplexsocietiesalsoinvolveaestheticmarkerssuchastheclothingpeoplewearandthekindsofartworkstheyuseasdecorationsoftheirhomes.AccordingtoSahlins,socialandeconomicclass,age,andgenderdifferencesarenoticeableeveninthekindsoffabricspeople’sclothingismadefrom.Forinstance,silksinmostsocietiesarepredominantlywornbywomen,especiallythosewhoarepartoftheupperclassesandthosewhoaremiddle-aged.
EconomicFunctions
Economiclife,byvirtueofitspracticalimportancetooursurvivalandtoourstandardofliving,cansometimesbeasourceofconflictbetweengroupsthatmustcarryoutexchangewithoneanother.Sometimesart,perhapsbecauseitisvaluedforitsnonutilitarianqualities,canplayaroleofmaintainingharmonyinsuchsettings.ThiswasoneofthefunctionsoftheKulaRingexchangeofceremonialnecklacesandarmbandsamongislanderssuchastheTrobriandersandDobuans.
ReligiousFunctions
Muchofthedramaticandemotionalimpactofreligionderivesfromitsuseofart.Religiousritualseverywhereincludesonganddanceperformances,andthevisualartsfunctiontoheightentheemotionalcomponentofreligiousexperienceinallpartsoftheworld,byportrayingimportantscenesandsymbolsfromreligioushistoryandmythology.Insomecultures,artandreligiousritualareinseparable.Forinstance,amongtheAbelamofPapuaNewGuinea,allartisproducedforuseinrituals.
DidacticFunctions
Artisoftenemployedasameansforteachingimportantculturalideasandvalues.Forinstance,hymnsinWesternreligiousexpresstheologicalconceptsandencouragethesupportofspecificreligiousvalues.DanielBiebuyckhasanalyzedtheuseofarttoembodymoralandethicalprinciplesbytheLegapeopleofCentralAfrica.Legaethicalidealsarecodifiedinfigurinesofhumansandanimalsmadeofivory,pottery,bone,wood,andwickerwork.ThefigurinesareusedintheinitiationandtrainingofmenintoprominentpositionswithinLegasociety.Eachofthesestatuesisassociatedwithoneormoreaphorisms,aconcisestatementthatalludestoageneralethicalconcept.Forinstance,onefigureisacarvedstickwhosetopisslitsoastosuggestanopenmouth…Theobjectillustratesthesaying,“Hewhodoesnotputoffhisquarrelsomenesswillquarrelwithsomethingthathasthemouthwidelydistended.”(Inotherritesthisideamayberenderedbyacrocodilefigurinewithwidelydistendedjaws.)Theaphorismalludestothedisastrouseffectsofquarrelsomenessandmeddlesomeness.
Thus,Legafigurineswerenotonlyworksofart;theywerealsodevicesforteachingimportantmoralprinciplestoeachnewgeneration.Atthesametime,theirownershipbyoldermenwhohadachievedinitiationintothehighestlevelsofsocietyfunctionedtoperpetuaterespectforthemoralwisdomoftheleadersintheestablishedsocialhierarchy.
PoliticalFunctions
Artoftenfunctionstolegitimizetheauthorityofgovernment.MountRushmore,inSouthDakota,memorializesfourAmericanpresidentswhowereselectedfortheirsymbolicassociationwithmessagesaboutvaluesofindividualismanddemocracy.ThestatueMotherRussiacommemoratestheenduringwilltosurviveoftheRussianpeople.TheBritishCrownJewels,byvirtueoftheirartistryandthesymbolismofpreciousstonesthatoriginatedthroughouttheCommonwealth,celebratethevalueoftheinstitutionofthemonarchy.AndtheornatelycarvedGoldenStooloftheAshantiofsouthernGhana,withthedistinctivemythofitssupernaturalorigins,reinforcesthelegitimacyoftheAshantikingandtheunityandstabilityofAshantisociety.
Asastatementaboutthelegitimacyofgovernmentalauthority,artisaconservativeforceinsociety.Inthisrole,itisintendedtoelicitloyaltyandtostabilizesocietyanditspoliticalsystem.Governmentsalsosometimesdeliberatelyemploythisaspectofartaspropagandaurgingpublicactionthatsupportsofficialpolicy.Thus,propagandisticartembodiesbothdidacticandpoliticalfunctions.
2. InterculturalPrejudices
Whenculturemeet,peoplemayhavelittleunderstandingorappreciationofgroupswhoseideologiesandadaptivestrategiesdifferfromtheirown.Peoplegrowupunderthenurturanceoftheirgroupandlearntofulfilltheirneedsbylivingaccordingtotheirgroup’sculture.Aspeoplelearntheirwayoflife,theygenerallyidentifythemselvesasmembersofthegroupthathascaredfortheirearlyneedsandhastaughtthemtherulesforliving.Simultaneously,theygenerallydeveloppositivefeelingstowardthisreferencegroupanditsbehaviors.Often,thetrainingofchildreninthewaysofthegroupiscommunicatedexpresslybycontrastingthemwiththesupposedbehaviorsofoutsiders:
“Otherparentsmaylettheirchildrencometothetablelikethat,butinourfamilywewashourhandsbeforeeating!
”suchexpressionsteachchildrenthepatternsofbehaviorexpectedofgroupmembers,buttheyalsocommunicateadisapprovalofoutsiders.
Incomplexsocietieswithlargepopulationsandmanycompetinggroups,prejudicesbetweengroupswithinthesocietymaybecomeacommonelementofdailyexperience,varyingfromgood-naturedrivalrytodirectantipathies.IntheUnitedStates,wemaythinkofourownstateas“God’sowncountry,”ourpoliticsastheonlyrationalwayofdoingthings,orourreligionastheonlyroadtosalvation.Evensuchgroupsymbolsashairlengthandstyleofclothinghaveservedasgroundsforsuspensionfromschool,unifiedthoseinpublicdemonstrations,andcausedinterpersonalviolence.
Theattitudethatone’sowncultureisthenaturallysuperiorone,thestandardbywhichallotherculturesshouldbejudged,andthatculturesdifferentfromone’sownareinferiorissuchacommonwayofreactingtoothers’customsthatitisgivenaspecialnamebyanthropologists.Ethnocentrism,centeredinone’sethnos,theGreekwordforapeopleoranation,isfoundineveryculture.Peopleallowtheirjudgmentsabouthumannatureandabouttherelativemeritsofdifferentwaysoflifetobeguidedbyideasandvaluesthatarecenterednarrowlyonthewayoflifeoftheirownsociety.
Ethnocentrismservesasocietybycreatinggreaterfeelingsofgroupunity.Whenindividualsspeakethnocentrically,theyaffirmtheirloyaltytotheidealsoftheirsocietyandelicitinotherpersonsofthegroupsharedfeelingsofsuperiorityabouttheirsocialbody.Thisenhancestheirsenseofidentityasmembersofthesamesocietyandasbearersofacommonculture.Asharedsenseofgroupsuperiority—especiallyduringitsovertcommunicationbetweengroupmembers—canhelpthemoverlookinternaldifferencesandpreventconflictsthatcouldotherwisedecreasetheabilityofthegrouptoundertakeeffectivelycoordinatedaction.
Formostofhumanhistory,societieshavebeensmallerthanthenationsoftoday,andmostpeoplehaveinteractedonlywithmembersoftheirownsociety.Undersuchcircumstances,theroleofethnocentrisminhelpingasocietytosurvivebymotivatingitsmemberstosupportoneanotherintheircommongoalshasprobablyoutweigheditsnegativeaspects.However,ethnocentrismdefinitelyhasadarkerside.Itisadirectbarriertounderstandingamongpeoplesofdiversecustomsandvalues.Itenhancesenmitybetweensocietiesandcanbeamotivationforconflictamongpeopleswhoselivesareguidedbydifferentcultures.
Ethnocentrismstandsinfundamentalconflictwiththegoalsofanthropology:
therecognitionofthecommonhumanityofallhumanbeingsandtheunderstandingofthecausesofculturaldifferences.Tomanystudents,muchoftheappealofthefieldofanthropologyhasbeenitsintriguingdiscussionsoftheunendingvarietyofcustomsgrownoutofwhat,fromtheviewpointoftheuninitiated,mayseemlikestrangeandexotic,unexpected,andevenstartlinglydifferentvalues.Apeople’svaluesgenerallymakeperfectlygoodsensewhenseenandexplainedinthecontextoftheirculturalsystemasawhole.Yet,itisoftendifficulttomakesenseoutofanotherculturaltraditionbecauseitssymbolicmeaningsmaybesodifferentfromone’sown.Whilenegativereactionstothecustomsofanothersocietymay,therefore,beexpected,theyshouldbeguardedagainstbythestudentofanthropology.
3. CultureShock
Anthropologistswhoengageinfieldworkinaculturethatdiffersfromtheoneinwhichtheygrewupoftenexperienceaperiodofdisorientationorevendepressionknownascultureshockbeforetheybecomeacclimati
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