词汇学作业changes of word meaning.docx
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词汇学作业changes of word meaning.docx
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词汇学作业changesofwordmeaning
词汇学论文
外国语学院
题目:
causesandtypesofchangesinwordmeaning
Causesandtypesofchangesinwordmeaning
[Abstract]Wehavelearnedthatvocabularyisthemostunstableelementofalanguageasitisundergoingconstantchangesbothinthesign-shapesandsigncontents.Comparatively,thelatterisevenmoreunstablethantheformer.[1]Almosteverywordweusetodayhasaslightlydifferentmeaningfromtheoneithadacenturyago.Themeaningofwordischangingsincethebeginningofthelanguageandwillcontinueinthefuturebecauseallsortsofreasonsandfromthesechangeswecansummarizesomeoftheircharactersandforms.Thereasonofchangingaboutmeaningcanbeverycomplicated,butgenerallyspeaking,wecandividethemintotwomaincauses,thatareextra-linguisticfactorsandlinguisticfactors.Andtransformationofword-meaningfollowanumberofpatterns,themajorpatternsare:
extension,narrowing,degradation,elevation,transference,andeuphemism.Ofthesemajortendencies,extensionandnarrowingarebyfarthemostcommon.It’snotonlyveryfuntofindtheaccountsandtheirrelationshipbetweenoldandnewmeaningofwordbutalsohavevitalsignificanceintheprocessofourstudy.InthisthesisIwilldiscussinsomedetailsofthereasonsofchangeandthemajorpatternsofchange.
[摘要]由于词汇的形式和词义都在连续地发生变化,因而词汇是语言中最不稳定的元素。
其中词义的变化更为不稳定。
现在,几乎我们使用的每一个单词和一世纪之前的含义相比,都有轻微的改变。
因为各种原因,词义从语言的开始就在发生变化并会在未来继续下去,我们可以从中总结出词义变化原因和形式。
词义变化的原因很复杂但一般来讲,可分为两类:
语言学外因素和语言学因素。
词义变化的主要形式有:
词义的扩大,缩小,词义的升华,降格及词义的转移和委婉表达。
其中,词义的扩大和缩小是最常见的。
了解词义变化的原因和新旧含义的关系不仅有趣还会对我们的学习产生重要意义。
在这篇文章里,我将就词义变化的原因及形式进行详细的阐述。
[关键词]word;cause;change;type
提纲:
一、Causesofchange
(1)Extra-linguisticfactors
①Historicalreason②Classreason③Psychologicalreason
(2)Linguisticfactors
1Shortening②borrowing
③competitionofnativewords④analogy
二、Patternsofchange
(1)Extensionofmeaning
1polysemicwords②technicalterms
③wordscommonizedfrompropernames
④Thechangesinmeaningaregradual
(2)Narrowingofmeaning
①commonwordstopropernouns
2somephrasesareshortened(adjectives)
3materialnouns
(3)Elevationofmeaning
(4)Degradationofmeaning
(5)Transferenceofmeaning
1Associatedtransfer
2Transferbetweenabstractandconcretemeanings
3Transferbetweensubjectiveandobjectivemeanings
④Synesthesia
(6)Euphemism
一、Causesofchange变化的原因:
Therearegenerallytwomajorfactorsthatcausechangesinmeaning.
(1)Extra-linguisticfactors语言学外因素
①Historicalreason历史原因
●Awordisretainedforanamethoughthemeaninghaschangedbecausethereferenthaschanged.
Takeaword“pencil”,forinstance,itisfromaLatinwordmeaning“alittletail”or“afinebrush”,likeourChinese“pen”.Later,whenitwasmadeofwoodandgraphite,itwasstillcalleda“pencil”.
●Increasedscientificknowledgeanddiscoveryisalsoanimportantfactorthatunderliesthechangeofwordmeaning.
Taketheword“engine”forexample.ItsoriginisaLatinword“ingenious”,naturalability”.Butwhenstreampowerwasdevelopedinthefirstquarterofthe19thcentury,theterm“engine”cometomean“arailroadlocomotive",andincontemporaryEnglishitmeans“anymachinethatusesenergytodevelopmechanicalpower,especially.,amachineforstartingmotioninsomeothermachine”
②classreason阶级原因
●Languagerecordsthespeechandattitudeofdifferentsocialclasses,sodifferentsocialvarietiesoflanguagehavecomeintobeing.
●Theattitudeofclasseshavemadeinroadsintolexicalmeaning,particularlyinthecaseofelevationanddegradation.
●Quiteanumberofwordsthatdenotedifferentsortsofworkingpeopleortheiroccupationshavedeterioratedandnowhavetakenonapejorativesense.
E.g.Churl,hussy,wench,villainwhichwereoriginallyneutralincolorhavebeendown-gradedas“ill-mannedorbadpeople”.
③psychologicalreason心理原因[3]
●Theassociatedtransferofmeaningandeuphemisticuseofwords,etc.areoftenduetopsychologicalfactors.Ittakesthreeforms(a)euphemism(b)grandiloquence(c)cynicism
E.g;Wehavesucheuphemisticexpressioninreferringtodeathas“topassaway”“tobenomore”“sleepforever”…andmanyothers.
●Peoplechangewordmeaningowingtovariouspsychologicalmotives:
love,respect,courtesy,suspicious,pessimism,sarcasm,irony,contempt,hatred,etc.
●Thefactthatsomelow,humbleanddespisedoccupationsoftentakeonmoreappealingnamesisallduetopsychologicalreasons.
●Religiousinfluenceisanotherkindofpsychologicalneed.
(2)Linguisticfactors语言学因素
Theinternalfactorswithinthelanguagesystem.
①Onetypeofsuchchangeoccurswhenaphraseisshortenedtoonewordwhichretainsthemeaningofthewhole.Wecalledshortening.缩短
②Theinfluxofborrowingshascausedsomewordstochangeinmeaning.Wenamedborrowing.借用
③Thecompetitionofnativewordseventuallyyieldsthesemanticdivision.
④Thechangeofmeaningisbroughtaboutbyanalogy.That’sanalogy.类推
二、Typesofchanges演变类型
(1)Extensionofmeaning:
Itisaprocessbywhichawordwhichoriginallyhadaspecializedmeaninghasnowbecomegeneralizedorhasextendedtocoverabroaderandoftenlessdefiniteconcept.【词义的扩大】[2]
一个原本具有特殊意义的单词的词义被延伸,范围扩大,从而指代一种普遍意义语义变化过程。
Forexample,thewordbarn,itsoriginalmeaningis‘aplaceforstoringonlybarley’,butnowhasextendedtomeana‘storeroom’.Picturewasonce‘painting’,butnowhascometoinclude‘drawings’andeven‘photographs’.
1AlargeproportionofpolysemicwordsofmodernEnglishhavetheirmeaningsextendedtoadegreethattheycanalmostmeaneverything.E.g:
thing,business,respect
②Generalizationofmeaningisalsofoundinmanytechnicalterms,whichareconfinedtospecializeduse.
E.g:
allergic(original)toosensitivetomedicine患过敏症的
(present)averseordisinclinedto反感的;厌恶的
③Manypropernounsincludingpersonnames,placenames,etc.havebecomecommonnounsusedineverydaylife.
E.g:
newton(牛顿)ampere(安培)joule(焦耳)
④Thechangesinmeaningaregradual,andwordsarenotchangedinaday.E.gLady(thehostess--noblewoman---well-cultivatedwoman---woman)
(2)Narrowingofmeaning:
Itisaprocessbywhichawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarroworspecializedsense.Inotherwords,awordwhichusedtohaveamoregeneralsensebecomesrestrictedinitsapplicationandconveysaspecialconceptinpresent-dayEnglish.【词义的缩小】
把词义范围较广的词缩小,表示特指,即过去具有普遍意义的词变化后,现在仅仅表达特殊意义E.g:
wife-woman--marriedwoman
Meat---food---fleshofanimals
①commonwordstopropernouns
E.g:
city--theCity,means“thebusinesscenterofLondon”
prophet—standfortheProphetnamed“Mohammed”
②somephrasesareshortenedandonlyoneelementoftheoriginal,usuallyanadjective,islefttoretainthemeaningofthewhole.Suchadjectiveshavethustakenonspecializedmeanings.E.g:
ageneral=ageneralofficer
aneditorial=aneditorialarticle
③Somematerialnounsareusedtorefertoobjectsmadeofthemandthushaveamorespecificsense.
E.g:
glass--acup-likecontaineroramirror
silver---silverdollar
(3)ElevationofMeaning:
Itistheprocessbywhichwordsrisefromhumblebeginningstopositionsofimportance.Somewordsearlyintheirhistorysignifysomethingquiteloworhumble,butchangeastimegoesbytodesignatesomethingagreeableorpleasant.【词义的升华】词义的升华指词由贬义或中性转变为褒义。
即,有些词在历史上表示“卑微、下贱”之义,随着时间的推移转为“惬意的,愉快的”。
[5]
E.g:
nice(ignorant--foolish--delightful,pleasant)
Fond(foolish---affectionate)
Awesome(terrible---terrific)
(4)Itisaprocessbywhichwordswithappreciatoryorneutralaffectivemeaningfallintoillreputationorcome
tobeusedinaderogatorysense.【词义的降格】
这是一个词由原先表示褒义或者中性意义转为表示贬义的过程。
E.gblessedandhappy---innocent----simple----foolish
gay---happy---homosexual
(5)Somewordswhichwereusedtodesignateonethingbutlaterchangedtomeansomethingelsehaveexperiencedtheprocessofsemantictransfer,knownastransferenceofmeaning.有些词原指称某些事物,后来发生变化,转为指称另外的事物,就是【词义的转移】
1AssociatedTransfer(联想转移)
Twoobjectshavesomesimilaritiesthatenablepeopletoassociateonetotheother.E.g:
ThelipofawoundThetonguesoffire
2TransferBetweenAbstractandConcreteMeanings抽象含义与具体意义间的转移
●Abstracttoconcretemeaning
E.g:
Roomformerlymeant“space”,nowithasdevelopedaconcretemeaning“rooms”.
●Concretetoabstractmeaning
E.gGrasp(original)Afirmholdwiththehandsandarms
(present)Thepowerorabilitytounderstand
③TransferBetweenSubjectiveandObjectiveMeanings(主观意义和客观意义间的转移)Somewordswereformerlyusedsubjectivelybutlatershiftedtoanobjectiveuse,andthesubjectivemeaningwastotallylost.
E.g:
pitiful---fullofpity—deservingpity
Dreadful—fullofdread—causingdread[2]
④Synesthesia(通感)Thiskindoftransfertakesplacebetweenwordsofsensation.Thatis,wordsusuallyassociatedwithonesenseareusedtodescribeanothersense.
E.g:
Clear-sounding(fromsighttohearing)
Warmcolors(fromtouchtosight)
Sweetvoice/music(fromtastetohearing)
(6)Euphemism【委婉语】
InEnglishasinanyotherlanguage,therearethingswhichareconsideredtobetabooandspecificunpleasantnesswhichrelatetosuchthingsasaccidents,illness,deathandsex.Peopletendtoavoidmentioningthemdirectlyandtalkabouttheminaeuphemisticway.Theytrytoemploypleasanttermstoexpresstheideas.
Thereisasemanticchangeinvolvedastheexpressionsusedoftenhavelittletodowiththereferents.
E.g:
Restroom,bathroom,lounge,John,convenience,comfortsroomandpowderroomarealleuphemistictermsfor“toilet”whichitselfisaeuphemisticterm.[4]
参考文献:
1郭家铨.英语词汇多义变化的原因[M].现代外语,1993.3.
2申开敏.词义的演变课件,海南师范大学外国语学院,XX文库
3吴秀芳.现代英语的词义变化与外部原因[M].河南职技师院学报2000.
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