语言学课后答案第2章.docx
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语言学课后答案第2章.docx
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语言学课后答案第2章
1.
phonetics:
thestudyofhowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.Itcanbedividedintothreemainareasofstudy—articulatoryphonetics,acousticphoneticsandperceptual/auditoryphonetics.
articulatoryphonetics:
thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds,orthestudyofhowspeechsoundsareproduced/made.
phonology:
thestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimstodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.
speechorgans:
thosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech,alsoknownas‘vocalorgans’.
voicing:
thevibrationofthevocalfolds.Whenthevocalfoldsareclosetogether,theairstreamcausesthemtovibrateagainsteachotherandtheresultantsoundissaidtobe‘voiced’.Whenthevocalfoldsareapartandtheaircanpassthrougheasily,thesoundproducedissaidtobe‘voiceless’.
InternationalPhoneticAlphabet:
asetofstandardphoneticsymbolsintheformofachart(theIPAchart),designedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationsince1888.Ithasbeenrevisedfromtimetotimetoincludenewdiscoveriesandchangesinphonetictheoryandpractice.Thelatestversionhasbeenrevisedin1993andupdatedin1996.
consonant:
amajorcategoryofsoundsegments,producedbyaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction.
vowel:
amajorcategoryofsoundsegments,producedwithoutobstructionofthevocaltractsothatairescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthorthenose.
mannerofarticulation:
waysinwhicharticulationofconsonantscanbeaccomplished—(a)thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;(b)theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;or(c)theymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.
placeofarticulation:
thepointwhereanobstructiontotheflowofairismadeinproducingaconsonant.
CardinalVowels:
asetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.
semi-vowel:
segmentsthatareneitherconsonantsnorvowels,e.g.[j]and[w].
vowelglide:
vowelsthatinvolveachangeofquality,includingdiphthongs,whenasinglemovementofthetongueismade,andtriphthongs,whereadoublemovementisperceived.
coarticulation:
simultaneousoroverlappingarticulations,aswhenthenasalqualityofanasalsoundaffectstheprecedingorfollowingsoundsothatthelatterbecomesnasalized.Iftheaffectedsoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,itisknownas‘anticipatorycoarticulation’;ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itis‘perseverativecoarticution’.
phoneme:
aunitofexplicitsoundcontrast.Iftwosoundsinalanguagemakeacontrast betweentwodifferentwords,theyaresaidtobedifferentphonemes.
allophone:
variantsofthesamephoneme.Iftwoormorephoneticallydifferentsoundsdonotmakeacontrastinmeaning,theyaresaidtobeallophonesofthesamephoneme.Tobeallophones,theymustbeincomplementarydistributionandbearphoneticsimilarity.
assimilation:
aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound,atermoftenusedsynonymouslywith‘coarticulation’.Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,itiscalled‘regressiveassimilation’;theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownas‘progressiveassimilation’.
ElsewhereCondition:
Themorespecificruleappliedfirst.Itisappliedwhentwoormorerulesareinvolvedinderivingthesurfaceformfromtheunderlyingform.
distinctivefeatures:
ameansofworkingoutasetofphonologicalcontrastsoroppositionstocaptureparticularaspectsoflanguagesounds,firstsuggestedbyRomanJacobsoninthe1940sandthendevelopedbynumerousotherpeople.
syllable:
animportantunitinthestudyofsuprasegmentals.Asyllablemusthaveanucleusorpeak,whichisoftenthetaskofavowelorpossiblythatofasyllabicconsonant,andofteninvolvesanoptionalsetofconsonantsbeforeand/orafterthenucleus.
MaximalOnsetPrinciple:
aprinciplefordividingthesyllableswhenthereisaclusterofconsonantsbetweentwovowels,whichstatesthatwhenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.
stress:
thedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Whenasyllableisproducedwithmoreforceandisthereforemore‘prominent’,itisa‘stressed’syllableincontrasttoalessprominent,‘unstressed’syllable.
intonation:
theoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsofvaryinglength.
tone:
asetoffall-risepatternsaffectingthemeaningsofindividualwords.
8.
InOldEnglish,therearenovoicedfricativephonemes.Allvoicedvariants,whichappearonlybetweenvoicedsounds,areallophonesoftheirvoicelesscounterparts.
Therulecanbestatedasfollows:
fricatives→[+voice]/[+voice]_____[+voice]
[–voice] inotherplaces
2.
1)voiceddentalfricative
2)voicelesspostalveolarfricative
3)velarnasal
4)voicedalveolarstop/plosive
5)voicelessbilabialstop/plosive
6)voicelessvelarstop/plosive
7)(alveolar)lateral
8)highfrontunroundedlaxvowel
9)highbackroundedtensevowel
10)lowbackroundedlaxvowel
3.
1)[f]2)[ʒ]3)[j]4)[h]5)[t]
6)[e]7)[ʉ]8)[ɶ]9)[ɔ]10)[u]
4.
1)Onacleardayyoucanseeformiles.
2)Somepeoplethinkthatfirstimpressionscountforalot.
5.1)
Quiteafewhumanorgansareinvolvedintheproductionofspeech:
thelungs,thetrachea(orwindpipe),thethroat,thenose,andthemouth.
Thepharynx,mouth,andnoseformthethreecavitiesofthevocaltract.Speechsoundsareproducedwithanairstreamastheirsourcesofenergy.Inmostcircumstances,theairstreamcomesfromthelungs.Itisforcedoutofthelungsandthenpassesthroughthebronchiolesandbronchi,aseriesofbranchingtubes,intothetrachea.Thentheairismodifiedatvariouspointsinvariouswaysinthelarynx,andintheoralandnasalcavities:
themouthandthenoseareoftenreferredto,respectively,astheoralcavityandthenasalcavity.
Insidetheoralcavity,weneedtodistinguishthetongueandvariouspartsofthepalate,whileinsidethethroat,wehavetodistinguishtheupperpart,calledpharynx,fromthelowerpart,knownaslarynx.Thelarynxopensintoamusculartube,thepharynx,partofwhichcanbeseeninamirror.Theupperpartofthepharynxconnectstotheoralandnasalcavities.
Thecontentsofthemouthareveryimportantforspeechproduction.Startingfromthefront,theupperpartofthemouthincludestheupperlip,theupperteeth,thealveolarridge,thehardpalate,thesoftpalate(orthevelum),andtheuvula.Thesoftpalatecanbeloweredtoallowairtopassthroughthenasalcavity.Whentheoralcavityisatthesametimeblocked,anasalsoundisproduced.
Thebottompartofthemouthcontainsthelowerlip,thelowerteeth,thetongue,andthemandible.
Atthetopofthetracheaisthelarynx,thefrontofwhichisprotrudinginmalesandknownasthe“Adam’sApple”.Thelarynxcontainsthevocalfolds,alsoknownas“vocalcords”or“vocalbands”.ThevocalfoldsareapairofstructurethatlieshorizontallybelowthelatterandtheirfrontendsarejoinedtogetheratthebackoftheAdam’sApple.Theirrearends,however,remainseparatedandcanmoveintovariouspositions:
inwards,outwards,forwards,backwards,upwardsanddownwards.
5.2)
Thisisbecauseghispronouncedas[f]inenough,oas[ɪ]inwomen,andtias[ʃ]innation.
5.3)
Intheproductionofconsonantsatleasttwoarticulatorsareinvolved.Forexample,theinitialsoundinbadinvolvesbothlipsanditsfinalsegmentinvolvestheblade(orthetip)ofthetongueandthealveolarridge.Thecategoriesofconsonant,therefore,areestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themostimportantofthesefactorsare:
(a)theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract,and(b)whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.TheformerisknownastheMannerofArticulationandthelatterasthePlaceofArticulation.
TheMannerofArticulationreferstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:
(a)thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;(b)theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;or(c)theymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.
ThePlaceofArticulationreferstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.Practicallyconsonantsmaybeproducedatanyplacebetweenthelipsandthevocalfolds.ElevenplacesofarticulationaredistinguishedontheIPAchart.
Asthevowelscannotbedescribedinthesamewayastheconsonants,asystemofcardinalvowelshasbeensuggestedtogetoutofthisproblem.Thecardinalvowels,asexhibitedbythevoweldiagramintheIPAchart,areasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.
Thecardinalvowelsareabstractconcepts.Ifweimaginethatfortheproductionof[@]thetongueisinaneutralposition(neitherhighnorlow,neitherfrontnorback),thecardinalvowelsarea
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