Linguistics Course.docx
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Linguistics Course.docx
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LinguisticsCourse
LinguisticsCourse
一.名词解释(10个20分)
1.Designfeaturesoflanguage:
thedistinctivefeaturesofhumanlanguagethatessentiallymakehumanlanguagedistinguishablefromlanguagesofanimals.
2.Arbitrariness:
Itreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticssignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.
3.Duality:
Dualitymeansasmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.AccordingtoLyons,itismeantthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelsarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.
4.Creativity:
Languagecancreatenewmeanings.Inanothersense,languagecanbecreateendlesssentences(combinethebasicunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences)
5.Displacement:
Itmeansthatthehumanlanguageenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.
6.Function:
therolelanguageplaysincommunication(e.g.toexpressideas,attitudes)orinparticularsocialsituations(e.g.religious,legal)
7.Informative:
Languageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenfeelneedtospeaktheirthought.
8.Performative:
Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,theblessingofchildren,thesentencingofcriminals,thenamingofashipatlaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.Thekindoflanguageemployedinperformativeverbalactsisusuallyquiteformalandevenritualized.
9.Phonetics:
Phoneticsstudiesspeechsounds,includestheproductionofspeech,thatishowspeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thesoundsofspeech,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech,etc.
10.Phonology:
Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.
11.Morphology:
Morphologyisconcernedwiththeinternetorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeanings---morphemesandword-formationprocess.
12.Syntax:
SYNTAXisaboutprinciplesofformingandunderstandingcorrectEnglishsentences.Theformandstructureisgovernedbytherulesofsyntax.Theserulesspecifywordorder,sentenceorganization,andtherelationshipbetweenwords,wordclassesandothersentenceelements.
13.Semantics:
SEMANTICSexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.Itisnotonlyconcernedwithmeaningsofwordsaslexicalitems,butalsowithlevelsoflanguagebelowthewordandaboutit.E.g.Meaningofmorphemesandsentences.Thefollowingarewhatthekeyconceptslooklike:
semanticcomponents(语义成分),denotationofwords(词的外延),senserelationsbetweenwordssuchasantonymyandsynonymy,senserelationsbetweensentencessuchasentailment(蕴涵)andpresupposition(预设).
14.Pragmatics:
PRAGMATICSisthestudyofmeaningincontext.Itdealswithparticularutterancesinparticularsituationsandisespeciallyconcernedwiththevariouswaysinwhichthemanysocialcontextsoflanguageperformancecaninfluenceinterpretation.Inotherwords,pragmaticsisconcernedwiththewaylanguageisusedtocommunicateratherthanwiththewaylanguageisstructured.
15.Consonant:
amajorcategoryofsoundsegments,producedbyacloserinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction.
16.Vowel:
amajorcategoryofsoundsegments,producedwithoutobstructionofthevocaltractsothatairescapeinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthorthenose.
17.Mannersofarticulation:
wayinwhicharticulationofconsonantscanbeaccomplished—(a)thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;(b)thewaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;or(c)theymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.
18.Placesofarticulation:
thepointwhereanobstructiontotheflowofairismadeinproducingaconsonant.
19.Allophones:
variantsofthesamephoneme.Iftwoormorephoneticallydifferentsoundsdonotmakeacontrastinmeaning,theyaresaidtobeallophonesofthesamephoneme.Tobeallophones,theymustbeincomplementarydistributionandbearphoneticssimilarity.
20.Distinctivefeatures:
ameanofworkingoutofasetofphonologicalcontrastsoroppositionstocaptureparticularaspectsoflanguagesounds,firstsuggestedbyRomanJacobsoninthe1940sandthendevelopedbynumerousotherpeople.
Speechsoundsaredividedintoclassesaccordingtoanumberofproperties.Foeexample,consonantsaredescribedaccordingtotheirplacesandmannersofarticulation,vowelsaredescribedaccordingtotheirfrontnessandbackness.Oneimportantpropertyis“voicing”(浊音化),whichplaysanimportantroleindistinguishingobstructs(阻塞音)inEnglish.Becausevoicingcandistinguishonephonemefromanother,itisaDISTINCTIVEFEATUREforEnglishobstructs.(detailsseepp.66-68)
21.Word:
Wordisaunitofexpressionthatnativespeakersmayrecognizebyintuition,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.
22.IdentificationofWords
(1)StabilityWordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunits,inrespectoftheirinternalstructure.Generallyspeaking,itishardtorearrangetheinternalstructureofacomplexwordintoadifferentorder.(seep.57).
(2)Relativeuninterrruptibility.Relativeuninterruptibilitymeansthatnewelementsshouldnotbeinsertedintoaword,evenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.
(3)Aminimumfreeform
ThiswasfirstsuggestedbyLeonardBloomfield(1933).Headvocatedthat(i)sentenceshouldbetreatedas“themaximumfreeform”and(ii)word“theminimumfreeform”.Wordisthesmallestunitthatcanbeused,byitself,asacompleteutterance,aspossiblyinthefollowingexchangeofutterances.(seeexample3-7).
23.ThreeSensesof“WORD”
(1)Aphysicallydefinableunit
Languageisproducedasacontinuousstretchofspeechorwriting,butonecanstillpausesandblankseverynowandthen.Thus,wordmaybeseenasasetofsoundsegmentsorwritinglettersbetweentwopausesorblanks.Examplesseepp.55-56.
(2)Thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms
Wordisthecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms,aunitofvocabulary,alexicalitem,oralexeme.Lexemeispostulatedastheabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontexts.Forexample,“write”and“fat”arethelexemesofthetwosetsofwordsinthefollowingrespectively:
Writewriteswrotewritingwritten\fatfatterfattest.
(3)Agrammaticalunit
Wordisacomparablyabstractunittobesetuptoshowhowwordinthegrammarofalanguage.Sincelanguagepresentsitselfasahierarchyindifferentrespects,itrises,ittermsoflexicogrammar,frommorphemeatthebottomuptotheclausecomplexatthetop,andwordisarankbetweenmorphemeandwordgroup,asisshowninthefollowinghierarchicalrankscale.
24.Inflection:
isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixessuchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcasestowhichtheyareattached.
25.Immediateconstituentanalysis
Constituentisatermusedinstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit,whichisapartoflargerlinguisticunit.(detailsseepp.87-88)
TodismantleagrammaticalconstructioninthiswayiscalledIMMEDIATECONSTITUENTANALYSIS(直接成分分析法)。
TheImmediateConstituentAnalysisisproposedbytheAmericanLinguististLeonardBloomfieldinhisLanguage(语言论),firstpublishedin1933.Hesaid“AnyEnglish-speakingpersonwhoconcernshimselfwiththismatter,issuretotellusthattheimmediateconstituentsofPoorJohnranawayaretwoformsPoorJohnandranaway;thateachoftheseis,inturn,acomplexform;thattheimmediateconstituentsofranawayareran…andaway…;andtheconstituentsofPoorJohnare…poorandJohn”(p.161).
Inotherwords,IMMEDIATECONSTITUENTSareconstituentsimmediately,directly,belowthelevelofaconstruction,whichmaybeasentencelikePoorJohnranawayorawordgrouplikepoorJohn.Theorectically,theconstructionmayalsobeaword.Awordmayalsobeanalyzedintoitsimmediateconstituents—morphemes,e.g.lovelyinto{love}and{ly}….etc.Soimmediateconstituentanalysismaybedefinedas:
theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents—wordgroups(orphrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached.Inpractice,however,forsakeofconvenience,weusuallystopatthelevelofword.
WeoftenusetreediagramorBracketingtorepresentimmediateconstituents.(detailsseep.88)
26.Endocentricandexocentricconstruction
ENDOCENTRICCONSTRUCTIONisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinableCENTREorHEAD.
EXOCENTRICconstructionisjusttheoppositeofendocentricconstruction.Itreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup.
27.Meaningofmeaning
Conceptionmeaning:
ThisisthefirsttypeofmeaningrecognizedbyLeech,whichhedefinedasthelogical,cognitive,ordenotationcontent.Inotherwords,itoverlapstoalargeextentwiththenotionofreference.ButLeechalsouses“sense”asabrief
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