材料的可机加工性毕业设计机械外文翻译.docx

材料的可机加工性毕业设计机械外文翻译.docx

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材料的可机加工性毕业设计机械外文翻译

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外文原文

Theimpregnabilityofmaterial

Theimpregnabilityofamaterialusuallydefinedintermsoffourfactors:

（1）.Surfacefinishandintegrityofthemachinedpart;

（2）.Toollifeobtained;

（3）.Forceandpowerrequirements;

（4）.Chipcontrol.

Thus,goodimpregnabilitygoodsurfacefinishandintegrity,longtoollife,andlowforceAndpowerrequirements.Asforchipcontrol,longandthin（stringy）curedchips,ifnotbrokenup,canseverelyinterferewiththecuttingoperationbybecomingentangledinthecuttingzone.

Becauseofthecomplexnatureofcuttingoperations,itisdifficulttoestablishrelationshipsthatquantitativelydefinetheimpregnabilityofamaterial.Inmanufacturingplants,toollifeandsurfaceroughnessaregenerallyconsideredtobethemostimportantfactorsinimpregnability.Althoughnotusedmuchanymore,approximateimpregnabilityratingsareavailableintheexamplebelow.

1.ImpregnabilityOfSteels

Becausesteelsareamongthemostimportantengineeringmaterials,theirimpregnabilityhasbeenstudiedextensively.Theimpregnabilityofsteelshasbeenmainlyimprovedbyaddingleadandsulfurtoobtainso-calledfree-machiningsteels.

SulfuricandReauthorizedsteels.Sulfurinsteelsformsmanganesesulfideinclusions（second-phaseparticles）,whichactasstressraisersintheprimaryshearzone.Asaresult,thechipsproducedbreakupeasilyandaresmall;thisimprovesimpregnability.Thesize,shape,distribution,andconcentrationoftheseinclusionssignificantlyinfluenceimpregnability.Elementssuchastelluriumandselenium,whicharebothchemicallysimilartosulfur,actasinclusionmodifiersinSulfuricsteels.

Phosphorusinsteelshastwomajoreffects.Itstrengthensthedeterring,causingincreasedhardness.Hardersteelsresultinbetterchipformationandsurfacefinish.Notethatsoftsteelscanbedifficulttomachine,withbuilt-upedgeformationandpoorsurfacefinish.Thesecondeffectisthatincreasedhardnesscausestheformationofshortchipsinsteadofcontinuousstringyones,therebyimprovingmachinability.

LeadedSteels.Ahighpercentageofleadinsteelssolidifiesatthetipofmanganesesulfideinclusions.Innon-resulfurizedgradesofsteel,leadtakestheformofdispersedfineparticles.Leadisinsolubleiniron,copper,andaluminumandtheiralloys.Becauseofitslowshearstrength,therefore,leadactsasasolidlubricantandissmearedoverthetool-chipinterfaceduringcutting.Thisbehaviorhasbeenverifiedbythepresenceofhighconcentrationsofleadonthetool-sidefaceofchipswhenmachiningleadedsteels.

Whenthetemperatureissufficientlyhigh-forinstance,athighcuttingspeedsandfeeds—theleadmeltsdirectlyinfrontofthetool,actingasaliquidlubricant.Inadditiontothiseffect,leadlowerstheshearstressintheprimaryshearzone,reducingcuttingforcesandpowerconsumption.Leadcanbeusedineverygradeofsteel,suchas10xx,11xx,12xx,41xx,etc.LeadedsteelsareidentifiedbytheletterLbetweenthesecondandthirdnumerals（forexample,10L45）.（Notethatinstainlesssteels,similaruseoftheletterLmeans“lowcarbon,”aconditionthatimprovestheircorrosionresistance.）

However,becauseleadisawell-knowntoxinandapollutant,thereareseriousenvironmentalconcernsaboutitsuseinsteels（estimatedat4500tonsofleadconsumptioneveryyearintheproductionofsteels）.Consequently,thereisacontinuingtrendtowardeliminatingtheuseofleadinsteels（lead-freesteels）.Bismuthandtinarenowbeinginvestigatedaspossiblesubstitutesforleadinsteels.

Calcium-HybridizedSteels.AnimportantdevelopmentisCalcium-Hybridizedsteels,inwhichoxideflakesofcalciumsilicates（CaSo）areformed.Theseflakes,inturn,reducethestrengthofthesecondaryshearzone,decreasingtool-chipinterfaceandwear.Temperatureiscorrespondinglyreduced.Consequently,thesesteelsproducelesscraterwear,especiallyathighcuttingspeeds.

StainlessSteels.Authenticate（300series）steelsaregenerallydifficulttomachine.Chattercanbesproblem,necessitatingmachinetoolswithhighstiffness.However,Ferrisstainlesssteels（also300series）havegoodmachinability.Martensitic（400series）steelsareabrasive,tendtoformabuilt-upedge,andrequiretoolmaterialswithhighhothardnessandcrater-wearresistance.Precipitation-hardeningstainlesssteelsarestrongandabrasive,requiringhardandabrasion-resistanttoolmaterials.

TheEffectsofOtherElementsinSteelsonMachinability.Thepresenceofaluminumandsiliconinsteelsisalwaysharmfulbecausetheseelementscombinewithoxygentoformaluminumoxideandsilicates,whicharehardandabrasive.Thesecompoundsincreasetoolwearandreducemachinability.Itisessentialtoproduceandusecleansteels.

Carbonandmanganesehavevariouseffectsonthemachinabilityofsteels,dependingontheircomposition.Plainlow-carbonsteels（lessthan0.15%C）canproducepoorsurfacefinishbyformingabuilt-upedge.Caststeelsaremoreabrasive,althoughtheirmachinabilityissimilartothatofwroughtsteels.Toolanddiesteelsareverydifficulttomachineandusuallyrequireannealingpriortomachining.Machinabilityofmoststeelsisimprovedbycoldworking,whichhardensthematerialandreducesthetendencyforbuilt-upedgeformation.

Otheralloyingelements,suchasnickel,chromium,molybdenum,andvanadium,whichimprovethepropertiesofsteels,generallyreducemachinability.Theeffectofboronisnegligible.Gaseouselementssuchashydrogenandnitrogencanhaveparticularlydetrimentaleffectsonthepropertiesofsteel.Oxygenhasbeenshowntohaveastrongeffectontheaspectratioofthemanganesesulfideinclusions;thehighertheoxygencontent,thelowertheaspectratioandthehigherthemachinability.

Inselectingvariouselementstoimprovemachinability,weshouldconsiderthepossibledetrimentaleffectsoftheseelementsonthepropertiesandstrengthofthemachinedpartinservice.Atelevatedtemperatures,forexample,leadcausesembrittlementofsteels（liquid-metalembrittlement,hotshortness）,althoughatroomtemperatureithasnoeffectonmechanicalproperties.

Sulfurcanseverelyreducethehotworkabilityofsteels,becauseoftheformationofironsulfide,unlesssufficientmanganeseispresenttopreventsuchformation.Atroomtemperature,themechanicalpropertiesofresulfurizedsteelsdependontheorientationofthedeformedmanganesesulfideinclusions（anisotropy）.Rephosphorizedsteelsaresignificantlylessductile,andareproducedsolelytoimprovemachinability.

2.MachinabilityofVariousOtherMetals

Aluminumisgenerallyveryeasytomachine,althoughthesoftergradestendtoformabuilt-upedge,resultinginpoorsurfacefinish.Highcuttingspeeds,highrakeangles,andhighreliefanglesarerecommended.Wroughtaluminumalloyswithhighsiliconcontentandcastaluminumalloysmaybeabrasive;theyrequirehardertoolmaterials.Dimensionaltolerancecontrolmaybeaprobleminmachiningaluminum,sinceithasahighthermalcoefficientofexpansionandarelativelylowelasticmodulus.

Berylliumissimilartocastirons.Becauseitismoreabrasiveandtoxic,though,itrequiresmachininginacontrolledenvironment.

Castgrayironsaregenerallymachinablebutare.Freecarbidesincastingsreducetheirmachinabilityandcausetoolchippingorfracture,necessitatingtoolswithhightoughness.Nodularandmalleableironsaremachinablewithhardtoolmaterials.

Cobalt-basedalloysareabrasiveandhighlywork-hardening.Theyrequiresharp,abrasion-resistanttoolmaterialsandlowfeedsandspeeds.

Wroughtcoppercanbedifficulttomachinebecauseofbuilt-upedgeformation,althoughcastcopperalloysareeasytomachine.Brassesareeasytomachine,especiallywiththeadditionpflead（leadedfree-machiningbrass）.Bronzesaremoredifficulttomachinethanbrass.

Magnesiumisveryeasytomachine,withgoodsurfacefinishandprolongedtoollife.Howevercareshouldbeexercisedbecauseofitshighrateofoxidationandthedangeroffire（theelementispyrophoric）.

Molybdenumisductileandwork-hardening,soitcanproducepoorsurfacefinish.Sharptoolsarenecessary.

Nickel-basedalloysarework-hardening,abrasive,andstrongathightemperatures.Theirmachinabilityissimilartothatofstainlesssteels.

Tantalumisverywork-hardening,ductile,andsoft.Itproducesapoorsurfacefinish;toolwearishigh.

Titaniumanditsalloyshavepoorthermalconductivity（indeed,thelowestofallmetals）,causingsignificanttemperatureriseandbuilt-upedge;theycanbedifficulttomachine.

Tungstenisbrittle,strong,andveryabrasive,soitsmachinabilityislow,althoughitgreatlyimprovesatelevatedtemperatures.

Zirconiumhasgoodmachinability.Itrequiresacoolant-typecuttingfluid,however,becauseoftheexplosionandfire.

3.MachinabilityofVariousMaterials

Graphiteisabrasive;itrequireshard,abrasion-resistant,sharptools.

Thermoplasticsgenerallyhavelowthermalconductivity,lowelasticmodulus,andlowsofteningtemperature.Consequently,machiningthemrequirestoolswithpositiverakeangles（toreducecuttingforces）,largereliefangles,smalldepthsofcutandfeed,relativelyhighspeeds,and

propersupportoftheworkpiece.Toolsshouldbesharp.

Externalcoolingofthecuttingzonemaybenecessarytokeepthechipsfrombecoming“gummy”andstickingtothetools.Coolingcanusuallybeachievedwithajetofair,vapormist,orwater-solubleoils.Residualstressesmaydevelopduringmachining.Torelievethesestresses,machinedpartscanbeannealedforaperiodoftimeattemperaturesrangingfrom

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