文学名词解释英.docx
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文学名词解释英.docx
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文学名词解释英
Naturalismisatermofliteraryhistory,primarilyaFrenchmovementinprosefictionandthedramaduringthefinalthirdofthe19th-cent.Althoughitisalsoappliedtosimilarmovementsorgroupsofwritersinothercountriesinthelaterdecadesofthe19thandearlyyearsofthe20thcents.InFranceEmileZola(1840-1902)wasthedominantpractitionerofNaturalisminprosefictionandthechiefexponentofitsdoctrines.
TheemergenceofNaturalismdoesnotmarkaradicalbreakwithRealism,ratherthenewstyleisalogicalextensionofit.Broadlyspeaking,Naturalismischaracterizedbyarefusaltoidealizeexperienceandbythepersuasionthathumanlifeisstrictlysubjectedtonaturallaws.TheNaturalistssharedwiththeearlierRealiststheconvictionthattheeverydaylifeofthemiddleandlowerclassesoftheirowndayprovidedsubjectsworthyofseriousliterarytreatment.Emphasiswaslaidontheinfluenceofthematerialandeconomicenvironmentonbehavior,especiallyinZola,onthedeterminingeffectsofphysicalandhereditaryfactorsinformingtheindividualtemperament.
I.ThenatureofSentimentalism
v SentimentalismisoneoftheimportanttrendsinEnglishliteratureofthemiddleandlaterdecadesofthe18thcentury.
Alongwithanewvisionoflove,sentimentalismpresentedanewviewofhumannaturewhichprizedfeelingoverthinking,passionoverreason,andpersonalinstinctsof"pity,tenderness,andbenevolence"oversocialduties.
Literaryworkofthesentimentalism,markedbyasinceresympathyforthepoverty-stricken,expropriatedpeasants,wrotethe"simpleannalsofthepoor”.
Writersofsentimentalismjustlycriticizedthecrueltyofthecapitalistrelationsandthegrosssocialinjusticesbroughtaboutbythebourgeoisrevolutions.
Buttheyattackedtheprogressiveaspectofthisgreatsocialchangeinordertoeliminateitandsighedforthereturnofthepatriarchaltimeswhichtheyidealized.
SentimentalismembracesapessimisticoutlookandblamesreasonandtheIndustrialRevolutionforthemiseriesandinjusticesinthearistocratic-bourgeoissocietyand indulgesinsentiment,hencethedefinitesignsofdecadenceintheliteraryworksofthesentimentaltradition.
II.SocialbackgroundofSentimentalism
ThebourgeoisiegainingtheirascendancyinnationalpoliticsinEnglandafterthetworevolutionsof1640and1688.
ThehandicraftslaborgraduallytransformedtomachineindustryinthecourseoftheIndustrialRevolutioninthemiddleandlaterdecadesofthe18thcentury
Thenewcapitalistrelationswereestablished.
Sharpsocialcontradictionsbegantotakeshapeandtothreatentheshort-livedsocialstabilityintheearlydecadesofthe18thcentury.
Thecontinuous,large-scaleenclosuresoflandresultedinruralbankruptcy.
Thepovertyandmiseryoftheexploitedandunemployedlaboringmassesinthecitiesincreased.
TheEnlightenment,whichbelievedineducatingthepeopletobekindandrighteousandupheldreasonasthecure-allforallsocialwrongsandmiseriesdeclined.
Allthisledtoskepticismanddisbeliefinthemythaboutthebourgeoissocietyasthebestofallpossibleworlds
Lackofabetterormoresoundsubstituteforreasonastheinstrumenttoreformthenone-too-satisfactoryorevenhighlyunsatisfactorysociety,sentimentorevenanover-doseofsentimentwasindulgedinatleastasasortofreliefifnotasasalvoforthegrievesandheart-achesfelttowardtheworld'swrongs
Hencesentimentalisminliterature.
III.LiteraryFormsinSentimentalism
InEnglishpoetryofthe18thcentury,sentimentalismfirstfounditsfullexpressioninthefortiesandthefifties;Inthelaterdecadesofthecentury,strainsofsentimentalismmaystillbefoundinanumberofthepoemsofWilliamCowper.
InEnglishdramaofthecentury,thetruefounderofsentimentalcomedyhasoftenbeentracedbacktoRichardSteelewhosecomedies"TheLyingLover"(1703)and"TheConsciousLovers"containedelementsofsentimentalismasasortofreactiontotheimmoralcomediesofmannersoftheRestorationperiod.
inthefieldofprosefictionthatsentimentalismhaditsmostoutstandingexpression,OliverGoldsmith's"TheVicarofWakefield"maybeconsideredasrepresentativeworksofthiscategory.
OliverGoldsmith’spoetryandprosefictionwasquiteanexponentofsentimentalism.
LaurenceSternewasthemostprominentandthemosttypicalofthesentimentaltraditionamongallEnglishnovelistsandamongallEnglishwritersofthe18thcentury.
Justascharacterizationanddialogueandplotworkonthesurfacetomovethestoryalong,symbolismworksunderthesurfacetotiethestory'sexternalactiontothetheme.Earlyinthedevelopmentofthefictionalnarrative,symbolismwasoftenproducedthroughallegory,givingtheliteraleventanditsallegoricalcounterpartaone-to-onecorrespondence.
InJohnBunyan'sPilgrim'sProgress,forexample,everythingandeveryonestandsforsomethingelse.TheprotagonistChristian,tonoone'ssurprise,standsforeveryChristianreader;hisgoal,theCelestialCity,standsforHeaven;theplacesthroughwhichhepassesonhisway--LucreHill,VanityFair,andthelike--standforthetemptationsBunyanfeltthatChristianreaderswerelikelytoencounterontheirjourneytosalvation.EventhenamesofChristian'sfellowtravelers--Mr.Feeble-mind,Great-heart,andthelike--representnotindividualcharactersbutstatesofbeing.
Allegoryisundoubtedlythesimplestwayoffleshingoutatheme,butitisalsotheleastemotionallysatisfyingbecauseitmakesthingsalittletooeasyonthereader.Wefeelthatwearebeinglecturedto;it'salmostasiftheauthorisstoppingeverysentenceortwotosay,"Nowpayspecialattentiontothis,becauseifyoudon'trememberit,youwon'tgetthepoint."Essentially,allegoryinsultsourintelligence.
Allegoryalso,however,limitsourperceptions.Thebestworksofliteraturearethoseinwhichanelementofmysteryremains--thosewhichlendthemselvestoavarietyofinterpretations.Strictallegoryseldomdoesthis,whichiswhyreligiousallegoryisgenerallylesssatisfyingthanthescripturalstoryonwhichitwasbased.
Totakeallegorytothenexthigherlevel,wearriveatsomethingthatforwantofabettertermcanbecalledsymbolism.Atthislevel,thereisstillaformofcorrespondence,andyetitisnotsoone-to-one,andcertainlynotsoblatant.Whereasallegoryoperatesveryconsciously,symbolismoperatesontheleveloftheunconscious.Thisdoesnotmeanthattheauthorhimselfisunconsciousoftheprocessofcreatingsymbolism--merelythatwe,asreaders,acceptitsinputwithoutreallyunderstandinghowitworks.
InShakespeare'sHamlet,forexample,wediscoverthatHamletisfascinatedwithactorsandacting.Uponreflection,anastutereaderrealizesthatthisisbecauseHamlet'swholelifehasbecomeunreal;heisbeinghauntedbytheghostofhisfather,hisfatherturnsouttohavebeenmurderedbyhisuncle,hismotherhasmarriedhisfather'smurderer.ThemotifoftheactorsisasymbolfortheunrealityofHamlet'slife.
Similarly,nearthebeginningofF.ScottFitzgerald'snovelTheGreatGatsby,thereisthefamoussceneoftheValleyofAsheswhereTomBuchanan'smistressMyrtlelives.AlthoughFitzgeraldneversaysso,itisclearthattheValleyofAshesrepresentstherealstateofTom'ssoul;althoughtotheoutsideworldhisresidenceisinamansiononthebeautifulbayatEastEgg,whereeverythingisopulentandexpensiveandtasteful,theinwardlyrotten,spirituallydesiccatedTomreally"lives"wherehis"heart"does,inagrimashenvalleypresidedoverbyabillboarddecoratedwithahugepairofbespectacledeyes.TheeyesrepresentGod,whoseesTom'sactionsandknowstheinteriorofhisheart,butominouslyseemspowerlesstointervene.
OtherfamoussymbolsareMelville'sgreatwhitewhaleinMobyDick;Dante'sjourneyintotheunderworldinTheInferno;andColeridge'salbatrossin"TheRimeoftheAncientMariner."Alltheseconcreteobjectsorplacescarrywithinthemawiderangeofassociationsthatstandforsomethingsoineffableitwouldspoilthemagictoexplainit.Symbolism,therefore,isanintegralcomponentoffiction,becauseitenrichesthenarrativebypullingitsmessagedowntothelevelofourunconsciousandanchoringitthere.
I.Introduction
Romanticism(theRomanticMovement),aliterarymovement,andprofoundshiftinsensibility,whichtookplaceinBritainandthroughoutEurope1770-1848.IntellectuallyitmarkedaviolentreactiontotheEnlightenment.PoliticallyitwasinspiredbytherevolutionsinAmericaandFranceandpopularwarsofindependenceinPoland,Spain,Greece,andelsewhere.Emotionallyitexpressedanextremeassertionoftheselfandthevalueofindividualexperience(the'egotisticalsublime'),togetherwiththesenseoftheinfiniteandtranscendental.Sociallyitchampionedprogressivecauses,thoughwhenthesewerefrustrateditoftenproducedabitter,gloomy,anddespairingoutlook.
Asanageofromanticenthusiasm,TheRomanticAgebeganin1798whenWilliamWordsworthandSamuelTaylorpublishedLyricalBallads,[inthePrefaceofthe2ndand3rdeditionsofwhichWordsworthlaiddowntheprinciplesofpoetrycomposition,]andendedin1832whenWalterScott(1771-1832)died.AtthebeginningtheliteraturereflectedthepoliticalturmoiloftheagestirredbyFrenchRevolution.
ThegloryoftheageisnotablyseeninthePoetryofWordsworth,Coleridge,Byron,ShelleyandKeats,whoweregroupedintotwogenerations:
PassiveRomanticpoetsrepresentedbytheLakers/LakePoets—Wordsworth,Coleridge,Burns,a
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