英语专业词汇学第三章课本及答案.docx
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英语专业词汇学第三章课本及答案.docx
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英语专业词汇学第三章课本及答案
Chapter3MorphologicalStructureofEnglishWords
Wehavediscussedthehistorical,culturalandsocialfactorsthatfacilitate(使……容易;推动)thedevelopmentoftheEnglishvocabulary.Borrowing,aswesee,hasbeenplayinganactiveroleintheexpansionofvocabulary.Inmoderntimes,however,vocabularyismainlyenlargedonaninternalbasis.Thatis,weuseword-buildingmaterialavailableinEnglishtocreatenewwords.Butbeforewediscusstheactualwaysandmeanstomakenewwords,weneedtohaveaclearpictureofthestructureofEnglishwordsandtheircomponents(成分)—word-formingelements.Thischapterwilldiscussmorphemes(语素;词素),theirclassification(分类)andidentification(辨别),therelationshipbetweenmorphemesandword-formation(构词法).
3.1Morphemes
Traditionally,wordsareusuallytreatedasthebasicandminimalunitsofalanguagetomakesentences,whicharecombinationsofwordsaccordingtosyntacticrules(句法规则).Structurally,however,awordisnotthesmallestunitbecausemanywordscanbeseparatedintoevensmallermeaningfulunits.Takedecontextualizationforexample.Thisisoneword,butcanbebrokendownintode-,con-,text,-a/,-iz(e),-ation,eachhavingmeaningofitsown.Thesesegments(部分)cannotbefurtherdivided;otherwise,noneofthemwouldmakeanysense.Though-ationhasanumberofvariants(变体)suchas-tion,-sion,-ion,theybelongtothesamesuffixastheyhavethesamemeaningandgrammaticalfunctionandoccurowingto(因为;根据)differentsoundenvironment.Theseminimalmeaningfulunitsareknownasmorphemes(morpheistheGreekwordfor'form';-emeasin'phoneme'(音素)means'classof').Inviewofword-formation,themorphemeisseenas'thesmallestfunctioningunitinthecompositionofwords'(Crystal1985).Syntactically(从句法上看),however,amorphemeistheminimalformofgrammaticalanalysis(语法分析).Forinstance,eachoftheword-formsstudies,studying,studied,consistsofthemorphemestudy+;theforms-esinstudies,-inginstudying,-edinstudiedaremorphemes,whichexpressgrammaticalconcepts(语法概念)insteadofderivingnewwords(SeeClassifyingMorphemes).
3.2MorphsandAllomorphs(词素变体)
Morphemesareabstractunits,whicharerealizedinspeechbydiscreteunits(具体单位)knownasmorphs(形素).'Theyareactualspoken,minimalcarriersofmeaning'(BolingerandSears1981:
43).Inotherwordsthephoneticororthographicstrings(语音串或拼写字串)orsegments(切分成分;节)whichrealizemorphemesaretermed'morphs'(Bauer1983:
15).Themorphemeistothemorphwhataphoneme(音位)istoaphone(音素).Mostmorphemesarerealizedbysinglemorphslikebird,tree,green,sad,want,desire,etc..Thesemorphemescoincide(巧合)withwordsastheycanstandbythemselvesandfunctionfreelyinasentence.Wordsofthiskindarecalledmono-morphemicwords.Somemorphemes,however,arerealizedbymorethanonemorphaccordingtotheirpositioninaword.Forinstance,themorphemeofplurality{-s}hasasetofmorphsindifferentsoundcontext,e.g.incats/s/,inbags/z/,inmatches/iz/.Thealternates(作为替换的事物)/s/,/z/and/iz/arethreedifferentmorphs.Thesameistrueofthelinkverbmorpheme{be}.Itspasttenseisrealizedbytwodistinctorthographicformswas,were,eachofwhichhappenstobeaword-form,realizing{preterit}and{singular},and{preterit}and{plural}respectivelyandeachhasitsownphoneticform/woz/or/wə:
/.Therefore,bothwas,wereandtheirphoneticforms/woz/and/wə:
/aremorphs(SeediscussioninBauer,p15).
Anallomorphreferstoamemberofasetofmorphs,whichrepresentonemorpheme.Justasweclassphones(音素)togetherasallophones(音位变体)ofasinglephoneme(音位),soweclassmorphstogetherasallomorphsofasinglemorpheme.Takethepluralmorpheme{-s}again.Phonetically,itisrealizedby/s/,/z/,/iz/,allofwhichareallomorphs.InEnglish,manymorphemescanhavemorethanoneallomorph,particularlythosefreestandingmorphemeswhicharefunctionalwordsintheirownright.Oncetheyoccurinconnectedspeech,theymayberealizedbydifferentforms,dependingonwhethertheyareaccentedorweakened(Lookatthedatainthetable).
Morpheme
Allomorph
Strong
Weak
{am}
/aem/
/əm/,/m/
{was}
/woz/
/WəZ/
{have}
/haev/
/həv/,/v/
{would}
/wud/
/wəd/,/əd/,/d/
{he}
/hi:
/
/i:
/,/i/
{his}
/hiz/
/iz/
{for}
/fo:
/
/fə/
{to}
/tu:
/
/tu/,/tə/
Thenwhatisthedifferencebetweenmorphsandallomorphs?
Therelationshipcanbeillustratedbythediagrambelow.
Morpheme
{would}
morphmorphmorphmorph→allomorph
/wud//wəd//əd//d/
3.3ClassifyingMorphemes
Morphemesvaryinfunction.Accordingly,wecanclassifymorphemesintoseveralgeneralcategories:
freeversusbound,derivationalversusinflectional,andlexicalversusgrammatical.However,theirboundariesarenotasclear-cutastheyappeartobeduetosomeoverlapping(重叠).Forthesakeofdiscussion,weshalldefineeachtypeintermsofitscharacteristics.
1.FreeversusBoundMorphemes(自由词素与粘着词素)
Thisistheeasiestandmostpreferredclassificationinmorphologicalstudies,discussedinHatchandBrown(1995),Crystal(1985),FromkinandRodman(1983),Bauer(1983),BolingerandSears(1981)andMatthews(2000).Morphemeswhichareindependentofothermorphemesarefree.Thesemorphemeshavecompletemeaningsinthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences.Theyareidenticalwith(与……完全相同)words,forexample,man,earth,wind,carandanger.
Morphemeswhichcannotoccurasseparatewordsarebound.Theyaresonamedbecausetheyareboundtoothermorphemestoformwordsortoperformaparticulargrammaticalfunction.Boundmorphemesarechieflyfoundinderivedwords(派生词).Letustakerecollection,idealisticandex-prisonerforexample.Eachofthethreewordscomprisesthreemorphemes:
recollection(re-collect-ion),idealistic(ideal-ist-ic),ex-prisoner(ex-prison-er).Oftheninemorphemes,collect,idealandprisoncanstandbythemselvesandthusarefreemorphemes.Alltherestre-,-ion,-ist,-ic,ex-and-erareboundasnoneofthemarefreestandingunits.
Freemorphemesareallroots,whicharecapableofbeingusedaswordsorasword-buildingelementstoformnewwordslikecollect,ideal,prison,whereasboundmorphemesconsistofeitherrootsoraffixes,mostofwhichcanbeusedtocreatenewwordslike-dict-,-ced-(接近;去),re-,-ion,-ist,-icandex-(前).Butthereareafewaffixeswhichcanonlyindicatesuchgrammaticalconceptsastense,aspect,numberandcase,forexample,the-inginwatching,-erineasier,-sinbooks,and-edinworked.
TheEnglishlanguagepossessesamultitudeof(大量的)wordsmadeupofmerelyboundmorphemes,e.g.antecedent,whichcanbebrokendownintoante-,-ced-and-ent.Amongthem,-ced-isarootmeaning'approach,goto',ante-,aprefixmeaning'before'and-ent,anounsuffixmeaning'aperson,athing',thusthewholewordantecedentmeaning'somethingthatgoesbefore'(前例;前事;先行词;祖先).Theseexamplesshowclearlythatboundmorphemesincludetwotypes:
boundroot(SeeRoot,Stem,Base)andaffix.
2.DerivationalversusInflectionalMorphemes
Morphemeswhichareusedtoderivenewwordsareknownasderivationalmorphemes(派生词素)becausewhenthesemorphemesareconjoined,newwordsarederived.InEnglish,derivativesandcompoundsareallformedbysuchmorphemes.Forexample,a+mor+ai,clear+ance,Life+Likeandhomo+gen+eousareresultsofsuchmorphologicalprocesses.
Inflectionalmorphemes(屈折词素),incontrast,indicatethesyntacticrelationshipsbetweenwordsandfunctionasgrammaticalmarkers.Inflectionalmorphemesareconfinedtosuffixes.Thereistheregularpluralsuffix-s(-es)whichisaddedtonounssuchasmachines,fridges,desks,radiosandpotatoes;thesameformscanbeaddedtoverbstoindicatethesimplepresentforthethirdpersonsingularsuchaslikes,worksandgoes;theform-'sisusedtodenotethepossessivecaseofnounssuchasthechildren'slibrary,theman'sroleandthemother-in-law'scomplaints;thesuffixes-er,-estareusuallyattachedtosimpleadjectivesoradverbstoshowtheircomparativeorsuperlativedegreeslikehappier—happiest,harder—hardest.Apartfromthese,thereisthepasttensemarker-edandprogressivemarker-ingaddedtoverbs.Thedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalmorphemescanbesummarizedasfollows(SeeHatchandBrown,p266):
Inflectional
Derivational
(1)Doesnotchangemeaningorpartofspeechofthestem
(1)Changesmeaningorpartofspeechofthestem.
(2)Indicatessyntacticorsemanticrelationsbetweendifferentwordsinasentence.
(2)Indicatessemanticrelationswithintheword.
(3)Occurswithallmembersofsomelargeclassofmorphemes.
(3)Occurswithonlysomemembersofaclassofmorphemes.
(4)Occursatmarginsofwords.
(4)Occursbeforeanyinflectionalsuffixesadded.
3.ContentversusGrammaticalMorphemes
Onasemanticandsyntacticbasis,morphemescanfallintocontentandgrammaticalmorphemes(TraugottandPratt1980:
90;BolingerandSears,pp66~70;HatchandBrown,p267).Contentmorphemesarelexicalmorphemeswhichareusedasweseeabovetoderivenewwords,soalsoknownasderivationalmorphemes.Thesemorphemes,whetherfreeorbound,havealexicalcontent,hencethename.Grammaticalmorphemes,ontheotherhand,functionprimarilyasgrammaticalmarkers.Theyencompassbothinflectionalaffixesandfreemorphemessuchasin,and,do,have,they,-while,-where,butandthat,whicharetraditionallycalledfunctionalwords.
3.4IdentifyingMorphemes(词素的区分)
Sincemorphemesaretheminimaldistinctunits,theyshouldbeidentifiablebytheirforms,meaninganddistribution.Ge
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