心理语言学.docx
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心理语言学.docx
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心理语言学
TheAnalysisofL2Learners’FossilizationinInterlanguage
Introduction
MostL2learnersandlecturersfindthataftertheyreachedacertainstageofdevelopment,theycannotachieveL2proficiencyfurther.Americanlinguist,Selinker[1]notedthatmanyL2learners(perhapsasmanyas95percent)failtoreachtargetlanguagecompetence.Theystoplearningwhentheirinter-languagecontainsatleastsomerulesdifferentfromthoseofthetargetlanguagesystem.Animportantcharacteristicthatcanbeobservedinthestudyoftheinterlanguageofsecondandforeignlanguagelearnersisthefactthatsomelanguagefeaturesthatarepartofthelearners'interlanguageanddifferfromthecorrectormoreadequatetargetlanguageformdonotseemtofollowanykindofprogressiontowardsproficiencyinthetargetlanguagebutquitetheopposite.Theseinterlanguageformsseemtobeusedbylanguagelearnersinspiteoftheirtheoreticalcapacity(bothlinguisticandintellectual)toincludetherighttargetlanguageformintheirinterlanguagerepertoire.
Thisphenomenonofcertainlinguisticfeaturesbecomingfixedinsomeor,mostlearners'interlanguagehasbeenreferredtointheliterature,afterSelinkerasfossilization.
LiteratureReview
Inthepastdecades,manyresearchersandscholarsinlinguisticcircleandtheinterrelatedfieldshavedonealotofstudiesoffossilizationfromdifferentperspectivestodiscoverthecausesoffossilization,andanumberofdifferenttheorieshavebeenproposed,amongwhichSelinker’sfivepsycholinguisticprocesses,andthreemodels(thebiological,interactionalandacculturationmodel),oneprinciple(themultipleeffectsprinciple)andKrashen’sinputhypothesisareworthmentioning.
Selinker’s(1972)earlyexplanationofthecausesof
fossilizationconsistsoffivecentralprocesses:
languagetransfer,transferoftraining,inappropriatelearningstrategies,inappropriatecommunicationstrategies,overgeneralization.OneofthemostremarkablerepresentativesisLenneberg.LennebergadvancedCriticalPeriodHypothesisinhismonumental,TheFunctionofLanguage,in1967,believingthattherewasaneurologicallybasedcriticalperiod,endingaroundtheonsetofpuberty,beyondwhichcomplexmasteryofalanguage,firstorsecond,wasnotpossible.BesidesLenneberg,manyscholars,includingScovel(1988),Long(1990),Patkowski(1994)aresupportiveofthebiologicaltheory.Lamendellaused“sensitiveperiod”toexplaintheacquisitionofsecondlanguage.Lamendella(1977)alsoproposedanotherconceptofinfrasystem.HeholdsthatwhileL1acquisitioncallsforaninfrasystem,L2acquisitionalsorequiresitscorrespondinginfrasystem.Ifalearnerhasnotdevelopedtheinfrasystemforacquiringasecondlanguageorifthisinfrasystemisunderdeveloped,thenheorshehastoturntothealready-developedinfrasystemformothertonguetoacquirethesecondlanguage.However,theinfrasystemformothertongueisnotappropriateforacquiringthesecondlanguage,afterthecloseofthecriticalperiodforprimarylanguageacquisition,theL2learnerstandsagreaterchanceoffossilizingfarfromtarget-languagenorms.TheCriticalPeriodHypothesismostlyexplainsthefossilizationofL2pronunciation,astheavailableevidencesuggeststhatchildrendobetterthanadultL2learnersinpronunciationandspeakingtests,whileadolescentandadultL2learnersaresimilartoorbetterthanchildrenintheacquisitionofgrammarandmorphemes.Schumman(1981)proposedtheAcculturationHypothesistointerpretfossilizationfromasocial-psychologicalperspective.AccordingtoSchumman,acculturationmeansthesocialandpsychologicalintegrationofthelearnerwiththetargetlanguagegroup.InSchumman’sAcculturationHypothesis,acculturationisseenasthedeterminingvariableinthesensethatitcontrolstheleveloflinguisticsuccessachievedbysecondlanguagelearners.Stauble(1980)alsoaffirmedtheessentialrolesofsocialandpsychologicaldistanceinsecondlanguageacquisition.Vigil&Ollerpresentedanearlymodeloffossilizationwhichfocusedontheroleofextrinsicfeedback.Vigil&Ollerarguedthattheinteractivefeedbackreceivedbyalearnerhasacontrollinginfluenceonfossilization.CertaintypesoffeedbackweresaidtopromptlearnerstomodifytheirknowledgeoftheL2,whileothertypesencouragedlearnerstostandpat.Krashenbelievesthatmostadultsecond-languagelearners“fossilize”.Heconcluded5possiblecausesoffossilization:
insufficientquantityofinput,theaffectivefilter,theoutputfilter,theacquisitionofdeviantforms.
(2)Researchquestions.InappropriatequalityofinputphenomenonmentionedaboveleadsustoconsiderthereasonwhymajorityoftheL2learners(advancedlearnersincluded)stopprogressingintheiracquisitionofthetargetlanguageandwhysomekindsoferrorstendtopersistintheirinterlanguage,andwhatarethetracesoftheirfossilizationprocessing.
LanguageteachersincollegesareconsideredasadvancedL2languagelearners,withgoodcommandofforeignlanguages.Theyhavedoubleidentity-advancedEnglishlearnersandEnglishteachers.Doesthephenomenonalsoexistamongthem?
Inwhatway?
1DesignofInterviews
Theauthorselectedagroupof30L2lecturersinauniversitywhoarequalifiedforeignlanguageteachersfrom
differentlanguagebackgroundsandsharingthecommonfeaturesofatleastauniversitydegreeintheforeignlanguageandaneedoftheforeignlanguageintheirprofession.Informationwasgatheredthroughtheuseofintrospectivetechniquesbasedonasetofquestionsandtopicswhichtheindividualsansweredandcommentedintheinterviews.Withregardtothedatacollection,itisimportantinitiallytostatethatthefocusofresearchisnotontracingdevelopmentalpatternsofacquisitionascharacteristicofearlySLAresearch.TheinterviewdatahasbeencollectedfromsubjectswhohavebeenacquiringandusingEnglishformanyyearsinaso-calledEnglish-usingenvironmentfollowingseveralyearsofformalEnglishtrainingandlearninginChinaorsomeEnglish-spokencountries.TheobjectofobtainingthedataisthentocharacterizetheEnglishlanguagecompetenceofthesubjectsafterlongexposuretoaformalgroundinginthelanguage,andtosearchforevidenceofpersistentfossilizedstructuresandfeatures.Thefollowingtables(1-3)willgivebasicinformationofthesethirtysubjects.
Tablel
2DataAnalysisandInterpretation
2.1Motivationsandattitudeofthesubjects'L2learningandteaching
Fromthegatheringofthesubjects'answers,wecouldfindaveryinterestingfactthatalmostallofthesubjectsconsideredthattheircommandofthetargetlanguagewasnotasgoodasanativespeaker'softhattargetlanguageinmanydifferentareas,suchaspronunciation,vocabulary,setexpressionsandfluency,andmoreinterestingly,theyalsothoughtthattheirinterlanguagehadsomehowstoppedprogressinginmanydifferentaspectsinthelastfewyears.Somepeoplementionedthattheyfoundtheywereonlyprogressingifatall,intheareaoftheterminologyandformsmoststronglyrelatedtotheteachingorprofessionalsituation.Soaswecansee,accordingtotheindividuals'ownperceptionoftheirIL,theirinterlanguagehasbecomefossilized.Thatistosay,theyobviouslyreachedaplateauintheirlearning.
However,whenasked“howdoyouthinkyourcommandingofthetargetlanguageaffectsyourteaching?
”Twenty-nineofthemthoughtthattheircommandofthetargetlanguageisdefinitelyenoughbothfortheirprofessionandfortheircommunicationneeds.Theremarksalsoprovedthatthisgroupthoughtalthoughtheirinterlanguagehadsomehowstoppedprogressinginmanydifferentaspectsduringtheirteaching,theywereprogressingintheareaoftheterminologyandformsmoststronglyrelatedtotheteachingorprofessionalsituation.AndthisremarkalsobringsaboutaquestionwhichIthinkisfundamentalifwearetounderstandtheprocessoffossilizationininterlanguage:
thenotionofpurpose.
2.2Inputandoutput
Intheinterviewsofourgroup,whentheywereaskedaboutwhattheythoughttobethecausesoftheirfossilization,thirtyofthemwereallagreedinconsideringthefactthattheyhadrarechancetoliveinaforeigncountryoftargetlanguagethatthisimplies,wasthemainreasonforfossilization.Inarichenvironmentofauthenticlanguage,intheory,thisimmersionexperienceshouldprovidetheappropriatetypeof"input”whichwouldleadtotheacquisitionofcorrectformsandstructures}.Inpractice,however,becausemuchofthisauthenticlanguageisbeyondtheinputthresholdofthelearner,itisuselessforacquisition.
2.3Personalfeatures
Accordingtothedata,wewouldrecognizethatthelearnerisnotsimplyalanguagelearningmachine,thatis,hedoessimplyabsorbsyntax,phonologyandlexicon-heisanactorinthesocialworldandisthereforeconcernedwiththepragmaticaspectoflanguage-howtodowhat,andwhen.Hequietlybecomesawareofregister,andknowsthathecannotspeakinthesamewaytoeveryone,thathecannotusethesamelanguageinall.Wecandistinguishpersonalfeatureswhichcanaffectfossilizationinthefollowingways:
Cognitivestyle:
Followingthestudiesofskehant[4],wecanpointoutthatfromacognitivepointofview,onecan
distinguishbetweenfielddependentandfieldindependentindividuals.Althoughoriginallythiswasadistinctionderivedfromstudiesofpsychology,morepreciselyfromthefieldofperception,ithasalsobeenrelatedtolanguagelearning[5].Putbriefly,fielddependentlearnersaremoreinclinedtointerpersonalsituations,wantingcontactwithotherpeople,andengaginginverbalinteractionwiththe
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