文化移情.docx
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文化移情.docx
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文化移情
TheDevelopmentofCulturalEmpathyin
InterculturalCommunication
外国语言学及应用语言学
姜作超
Contents
Introduction--------------------------------------------------------------2
Ⅰ.Empathy--------------------------------------------------------------2
1.1DefinitionofEmpathy-------------------------------------------------------------------2
1.2FeaturesofEmpathy---------------------------------------------------------------------3
Ⅱ.HindrancestoEmpathy-------------------------------------------4
2.1ConstantSelf-focus----------------------------------------------------------------------4
2.2Ethnocentrism----------------------------------------------------------------------------5
2.3Dogmatism--------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
2.4LackofMotivation-----------------------------------------------------------------------5
Ⅲ.DevelopmentofCulturalEmpathy------------------------------6
3.1FourAdvicesforImprovingCulturalEmpathy---------------------------------------6
3.2AProposedModelfortheDevelopmentofCulturalEmpathy----------------------7
Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------9
References------------------------------------------------------------------11
Introduction
Interculturalcommunicationhaslongbeenanimportantprerequisiteofhumancoexistenceontheearth.Whileencounteringpeoplewithdifferentculturalbackgrounds,wewillinevitablymeetthedifferencesinlanguage,food,dress,socialbehavior,andsoon.
Itisdifferentculturalsystemsthatunderliethesesuperficialdifferences.Cultureinfluencesthewaypeopleperceivetheworldandprocessinformation.Differencesinthewaybywhichpeopleinterprettheworldaroundthemcontributegreatlytomisunderstandingsininterculturalcommunication(Borisoff,Victor1989).Itisbecauseofthesevariousculturalfactorsthatmostmisunderstandingsarisetocausefrustrationorbreakdownininterculturalcommunication.AfamousNativeAmericanproverbtellsus“Weshouldnotjudgeanotherpersonaluntilwehavewalkedtwomoonsinhismoccasins.”Thatis,weneedtodevelopempathy,theabilitytoseethingsfromthepointofviewofothers.
Empathyhaslongbeenregardedasanimportantelementofinterculturalcompetence,anditofferedaprimarymeansoffacilitatinginterpersonalunderstandingacrossculturaldifferences.
Thispaperiscomposedofthreepartsexceptanintroductionandaconclusion.Thefirstpartisabriefintroductiontoempathy,includingdefinitionandfeatures.Thesecondpartintroducesseveralhindrancestoempathy.Thelastpartisthedevelopmentofculturalempathy,includingfouradvicesandaproposedmodelforthedevelopmentofculturalempathyininterculturalcommunication.
Ⅰ.Empathy
Developingandemployingculturalempathyrequiresunderstandingoftheconceptofempathyasitoccursininterculturalcommunication.
1.1DefinitionofEmpathy
“Empathy”camefromaGermanword“Einfühlung”,whichwasusedasanaestheticdoctrineduringthelatenineteenthcentury.Initsoriginalusage,itmeant“feelinginto”(GoldsteinandMichaels,1985).Itwasusedtorefertothetendencyofobserverstoprojectthemselves“into”thatwhichtheyobserve,saysomephysicalobjectsofbeauty(Davis,1996).TheodoreLippsappropriatedthetermforuseinmorepsychologicalcontextsandextendedittothedomainofinterpersonalunderstanding.E.G.TichenerborrowedLipps’snotionof“Einfühlung”andcoinedtheEnglishtranslation“empathy”in1910,shiftingtheemphasisfrominternalactstocontent.Helaterchangedthenotionofempathyfromanamalgamationofvisualandmuscularimagerytoafeeling,orprojectingofone’sselfintoanobject,andtherefore,itbecameawaytohumanizeoursurroundings(Wispé,2000).
Empathyisaninnerimitation,“witnessinganother’semotionalstatepromptstheobservertocovertly,internally,imitatetheother’semotionalcues”(Davis,1996).Itissaidthatthissharingofemotionsbetweentargetandobserverhelptofosterabetterunderstandinginsocialcontext.AccordingtoMacarow,empathyhasthreecontemporaneousmeanings.Anditisoptimallydefinedbyallthreeofthesemeaningscombined:
1.Takingtheroleoftheother,viewingtheworldasheorsheseesit,andexperiencinghisorherfeelings.
2.Beingadeptatreadingnonverbalcommunicationandinterpretingthefeelingsunderlyingit.
3.Givingoffafeelingofcaring,orsincerelytryingtounderstandinanonjudgmentalorhelpingway.(GoldsteinandMichaels,1985)
1.2FeaturesofEmpathy
Inessence,empathyisawayofunderstandingandcomprehendinganother’sexperiences,thoughtsandperceptions.Itisauniquehumanendowment.Itisakindofsocialbehavior,whichbuildspositivesocialrelationshipandfostersgoodcommunication.
Empathyisaformofunderstanding,whichisthemostfundamentalfeatureofempathy.Empathyisthementalstateofhavingacertainkindofunderstandingofanother’sexperience.Empathyenablesusnotonlytoexperiencethefeelingsofothersbutalsotoreflectonthesefeelingsandcomparethemtoourown.Throughempathywecanvisitthemindsofothersandgetinformation.Onlywhenonetrulyunderstandswhattheotheristhinkinghasoneputhimselforherselfintotheother’sthought,asifonewerethinkingthesameashimselforherself.Thenitleadstotheidealofcommunication.
Empathyisakindofendowment.Empathyprovidespeoplewiththeinnatecapacitytoknowaboutthepsychologicalstatesofotherhumanbeings.Itisduetothisuniquehumancapacitythatpeoplecangobeyondpersonalboundariesandtrytolearnabouttheexperiencesofpeoplewhoaredifferentfromus,soastoknowothersmoreaccuratelyandcompletely.However,theabilityofshowingempathymightbeaffectedbymanyfactors,forexample,educationbackground,socialstatus,agesandetc.Itisimpossibletototallyputoneselfinsomeoneelse’sshoesbecauseeachindividualhasuniquepastexperiences.Nevertheless,onecanstillachievesomedegreeofempathyanddevelopeffectivecommunicativeskillsthroughcarefullisteningandobserving.
Empathyisakindofsocialbehavior.Humanbeingsareinnaturepartofaninterconnectednetworkofsocialrelationships,andknowledgeofotherpeopleisbuiltintothissocialnetwork.Inhumaninteractionapersonmakesresponsesappropriatetohispartintherelationshipandincorporatesinhisreactionresponsesofothersinthesituation.Empathyisapowerfulboundbetweenpeople,anditcanfacilitateprosocialbehaviorsandaffectsocialroles.Ithassignificantinfluencesonsocialinteraction,suchasavoidingconflictsandproducingbettercommunicationbetweensocialparticipants.
Ⅱ.HindrancestoEmpathy
Anumberofbehaviorscankeepusfromunderstandingthefeelings,thoughts,andmotivesofotherpeople.Thusitishelpfultoexaminesomefactorsthatimpedeempathy.
2.1ConstantSelf-focus
Constantself-focusisthemostcommonofallbarrierstoempathy.Whenweareconsumedwiththoughtsofourselves,itisdifficulttogatherinformationaboutotherpeopleandtomakeresponseonthatinformation.Payingtomuchattentiontoourownthoughtsusesmuchoftheenergythatweshoulddirecttowardourcommunicationpartner.Itisimproperandguiltytobehaveaccordingtotheproverb“Everyonethinksthatallthebellsechohisownthoughts.”
2.2Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrismisanattitudeofsuperiority,whichkeepsusfromdevelopingempathy.Wemayengageindefensivebehaviorproducedbysuchkindofsuperioritythatkeepsotherpeoplefromwantingtorevealinformationaboutthemselves,informationweneedifwearegoingtoengageinempatheticbehavior.Ifotherpeoplefeelrebuffedbyouractions,theyarenotlikelytodiscloseverymuchtous.Whenweappeartobeevaluatingotherpeople,whetherbywhatwesayorwhatwedo,wearelikelytomakethemfeeldefensivetowardsus.Ifwebelieveothersarejudgingandevaluatingus,wewillhesitatetoofferinformationthatwillfosterempathy.Aftersharingsomepersonalinformation,wecouldfeelawkwardwhentheotherpersonlecturesusonthefoolhardinessofouract.Afterafewminutesofcriticismandridicule,weprobablywoulddecidenottodiscloseanyotherinformationtothatperson.
2.3Dogmatism
Dogmatismisanotherattitudethatkeepsusfromdevelopingempathy.Ifsomeonebehavedasifheorshedoubtedeverythingwesaidandhadalltheanswers,eventoquestionswehadnotasked,weprobablybecomedefensive.Whenfacedwithadogmaticperson,ourdefensivenessmaytaketheformofdogmatismofourownorwemayfallintosilence.Ineithercase,thisdefensivebehaviorwillnotbedeductivetoempathy.WemustallseektoavoidbecomingthecharacterinShakespeare’s“TheMerchantofVenice”whocommanded,“IamSirOracel.AndwhenIopemylips,letnodogbark!
”
2.4LackofMotivation
Lackofmotivationmaybethesourceofmanyofhindrancestoempathy.Wearemostmotivatedtopeoplewhoareclosetousbothphysicallyandemotionally.Itiscommonthatweareprimarilyconcernedwithourfamiliesandasourpersonalcirclewidens,itincludesrelativesandfriends.Interestsinotherpeopleexpandtoneighborsandothermembersofthecommunity.Aswegetfurtherawayfrompeopleinourimmediatecircle,wearepronetofindithardtoempathize.Inmostcases,wewouldbemoremotivatedtolearnaboutourfriendsthanaboutthepeopleinAfrica.Althoughthisisanormalreaction,itoftenkeepsusfromtryingtounderstandtheexperiencesofpeoplefarfromourpersonalsphere.Tobesuccessfulininterculturalcommunication,wemustalllearntogobeyondpersonalboundaries
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