GREissue素材整理2.docx

GREissue素材整理2.docx

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GREissue素材整理2

SectionTwo:

ScienceandTechnology

1.      ComputerinEducation

Thereisagreatdealofinterestintheuseofcomputersineducation.TheeducationaluseofcomputersiscalledComputerAssistedInstruction,orCAI.ManypublicschoolsintheUnitedStateshaveacquiredcomputersandCAIprogramstorumonthem.Schooldistrictsareestablishingcomputerresourcecentersandspecialtrainingprogramstohelpteachersusecomputers.Inaddition,somecollegesanduniversitiesarebeginningtoestablishcomputerliteracyrequirementsforgraduation.Inspiteofallthisinterestintheuseofcomputersineducation,someeducatorsandstudentsstillmaybewonderingifthisexpensivetoyisreallyworththeirtimeand,insomecases,money.Theanswerisadefiniteyes:

Theuseofcomputersineducationhasimportantbenefitsforbothstudentsandteachers.

Computersenhanceastudent’slearningexperienceinmanyways.Firstofall,thecomputerhastheabilitytoaccommodateindividualdifferencesinlearningspeedbecausetheuser（thestudent）istheonewhocontrolsthepaceofthelessons.Inaddition,becauseacomputerisnonjudgmental,thelearnerdoesnothavetobeafraidofreprisalorhumiliationwhenmakingerrors.Forexample,becausecomputerscanrepeatinformationoverandover,theusercanaskformanyrepetitionsofalessonwithoutfearingajudgmentalresponseabouthisorherabilitytolearn.Thebeneficialeffectsoflearninginastress-freeatmospherearewelldocumented.AthirdadvantageofCAIisthatcomputercangiveastudentimmediatefeedback.Itcantellthestudentwhysheorheiswrongassoonasanerrorismade,anditcanevenprovideanapproachhintforfiguringoutthecorrectanswer.

Notonlydocomputersbenefitstudents,theyalsomaketheteacher’sjobeasier.Oneadvantageliesinthepreparationofinstructionalmaterials.Schoolsandcollegescanpurchaseeducationalcomputerprogramsthatcanbeadaptedtoanylearningsituation.Thesesystems,called“authoringsystems,”arelikeskeletallessonplans:

Theformatofseveralexercisesandtestsisalreadyplannedout;alltheteacheraddsistheinformationheorshewantsthestudentstolearn（mathematicalproblems,vocabularylists,andsoforth）.Theauthoringsystemautomaticallyincorporatestheseteachingpointsintoitspreplannedformatandthenisreadytobeusedbyseveralstudentsforalongtime.Thesystemcanalsocorrectthestudents’workanddetermineandrecordgrades.Inaddition,thecomputeroffersnumerousadvantagestoteachersinmanagingtheirclassrooms.Acomputerlaboratory（aroomhavingonecomputerforeverytwostudents）canfreetheteachertomeetindividuallywithstudentswhiletherestoftheclassisoccupiedwithcomputerlessons.Finally,computerscanhelpteacherskeepstudentrecordsandchartstudentprogress,therebycuttingdownontime—consumingpaperwork.”

Withalloftheseadvantagesforbothteachersandstudents,itiseasytoseewhythereissomuchinterestinusingcomputersineducation.Ofcourse,therearethosewhoareskepticalandviewcomputersasapassingfad.Therearethosealsowhosimplyareafraidofthem.Intime,however,computerswillbecomeasfamiliarintheclassroomaschalkboardsaretoday.

2.      ComputerMaketheWorkplaceLessFriendly

Wehaveseenthefuture,andithurts.

That’swhatmillionsofAmericanofficeworkersarediscoveringeveryyearascomputercometodominatetheofficeandthemaniaforever-increasingprofitsconsumestheworkenvironment.Ifpresentsentimentspersist,therecouldbeawhite-collarrevolt,asexecutivesandstenographersalikefindthatthe“officeoftomorrow”isjustthekeypunchcounterpartofthesweatshopofyesterday.

Onereasonforthisisthecomputer’spotentialto“deskill”work—toreduceittosimple,repetitiveactions.Forexample,insteadofhavingeachworkerinaninsurancecompanyrecordanincominginsuranceclaimandthenstaywithitthroughallphasesofprocessing,thejobisbrokenup:

Onedronedoesnothingbutcompletethesamelog-informs;anothergrindoutidenticalletterstodifferentaddresses.

Evenvaluedsenioremployeesareburningoutasaconsequence,ofcomputermonitoring—whichaffectsbetween20and35percentofAmerica’sworkers,accordingtoareportbytheOfficeoftechnologyAssessment[OTA].

Whenworkersuseelectronicgear,itiseasytometerwork-timetothemillisecond,tallybreaksandphonecalls,orrankaworker’soutputagainstthatofhiscolleagues.Terminalstrackthenumberofkeystrokesaworkersusesincompletingaparticularproject.Thisisallnecessary,managerssay,toimproveproductivity.（YettheJapanesedon’tdoit,findingthenotionoffensivetoloyaltyandgroupspirit.）

BankAmerica,forexample,paid$1millionin1985toinstallacomputersystemforratingthe3,500employeesinthecreditcarddivisionon200specificworkcriteria.“Imeasureeverythingthatmoves,”theseniorvicepresidentinchargedeclared.

Workersarelessenthusiastic.ABostoninsurance-claimkeypuncherfindsincrediblepressuretoenterdatafasterandfastertomeetmanagement’sstandards.“I’dleaveworkeverydaywithaterribleheadacheandpaininmyneckandshoulders.”It’safamiliarcomplaint.AnOTAsurveyof110organizationsbetween1982and1986foundthatapproximatelytwo-thirdwereengagedinsomeformofcomputersurveillance,monitoring,standardizedpace,orquotasystems.

Thisdespitethefactthatasearlyas1981,theNationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealthfoundthatclericalworkinvolvingcomputersandvideodisplayterminalsproducedahigherleveloftensionthanair-trafficcontrol.Proponentsofhightechnologydismissedthefindingsatransientspasmofadjustmenttothenewdigitalworkplace.Thevolumeofstress-basedcomplaintscontinuestorise,however.”

Inanatmosphereofcomputermonitoring,ineptworkstation,inflexiblepacing,andnerve-wrackinganxiety,workman’scompensationclaimsbasedonjobstresshavemorethandoubledsince1980,andnowaccountforapproximately15percentofalloccupationaldiseaseclaims.AccordingtoestimatesbytheOTA,stress-relatedillnesscostsbusiness,between$50and$75billionperyear.

LaborDepartmentfiguresshowthatproductivityintheservicessector—whereelectronicequipmentshouldhavemaximumimpactandwhichemploysnearlythreequartersofallAmericanworkers—isscarcelyabovelevelsinthemid-1970s,chieflybecauseofproblemsunderstandingandadaptingtonewtechnology.

3.      SolarEnergy

SolarpowerwasanexoticnewtechnologywhenJohnSchaeffergraduatedfromtheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,in1972andhelpedstartaprimitivecommuneinthewoodsinnorthernCalifornia.Hewasatinkerer,andinhissparetimehemanagedtorigupasolar-poweredtelevisionsetsohewouldn’thavetomisshisfavoriteshows.SoonSchaefferwassellingsolarpanelstohisfellowurbanrefugees.TodaySchaeffer’sbeardhasbecomeawhitegoatee,andhisRealGoodsTradingCompanyhasblossomedintoacatalogoperationthatisthecountry’slargestretailerofhomesolarequipment.Withacirculationof400,000,thecatalogofferseverythingfortheenergy-efficienthome.ThegrowthofRealGoods—saleshavejumpedfrom$29,000in1986to$10millionin1933—isasmallbutsharptremoralongtheshiftingtectonicplatesofAmerica’senergylandscape.

Untilnow,solarenergyhasappealedmostlytoaffluenthomeownersandthesave-the-environmentfolks.That’sbecausebuyingandinstallingsolarequipmentcancost$15,000foranaverage-sizehomebeforeanycurrentsstartstoflow.What’smakingsolarenergysohot?

Foronething,thetechnologyisgettingbetterandcheaper.Thepriceofthephotovoltaiccellsthatconvertsunlighttoelectricityhasfallensharplyfrom$500awattinthe1960stoabout$4today.

Companiesarenowrushingtobreakthe$2barrier.TexasInstrumentsandSouthernCaliforniaEdisonhavejoinedforcestoproduceflexiblesolarpanelsfrominexpensivelow-gradesilicon.Theinnovativetechnologywillallowthepanelstobeintegratedintocarandbuildingdesignand,evenmoreimportant;willcrashthepriceto$2.50awatt.

Someofthebiggestboostersofsolarpoweraretheutilitycompanies,eagerforacleansourceofelectricitythatwillenablethemtoproducemorepowerwithoutnewbillion-dollarplants.Bothasconsumersofsolartechnologyandasthepromotersofhomesolarpanels,utilitieswilldrivemuchoftheindustry’sgrowthintothenextcentury.“Utilitiesarebeginningtorealizethatthey’regoingtohavetogetonthesolarbandwagon,”saysS.DavidFreeman,generalmanageroftheSacramentoMunicipalUtilityDistrict（SMUD）.“Iftheydon’tandratesgoupsharply,peoplearegoingtobuytheirownsolarpanelsandpulltheplugontheutilities.”Hiscompanyembracedalternativeenergywhenratepayersvotedtocloseitstroublenuclearfacilityin1989.

Lastmonth,68utilitiesfromNewYorkCitytoSanFranciscoformedaconsortiumtopurchase$500millionworthofsolarpanelsoversixyears.SMUDisputtingsolarcellson100residentialroofsayearaspartofafive-yearpilotproject.Encouragedbytheresponse,SMUDhasordered100,000moresolarpanels,enoughtogenerateelectricityfor2,400homes,andispurchasinglandfora100-MWsolarfurnacethatwouldrivalthesizeofstandardpowerplants.

WhatSMUDisdoingparallelswhatdevelopingcountrieshavebeenuptoformanyyears?

Thesenations,whichcannotaffordtobuildcostlynuclearorfossil-fuelplantsinruralareas,now,buynearlytwothirdsofallsolarpanelsproducedintheU.S.“InMexicothereare28millionpeoplewithoutelectricity,and