语言学一到四章.docx
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语言学一到四章.docx
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语言学一到四章
Chapter1.Languageandlinguistics
一,language
1.Whatislanguage?
2.Designfeaturesoflanguage3.Functionsoflanguage4.Theoriginoflanguage5.Differencesbetweenhumanlanguageandanimallanguage
1.Whatislanguage?
Languagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsused
forhumancommunication.语言是一个用于人类交际的、具有任意性的语音符号系统。
Languageisasystem.
Systematic----rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;can’tbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.
Languageisarbitrary
Arbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.
Languageissymbolicinnature
Symbolic----wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”----Shakespeare
Languageisprimarilyvocal
Vocal----theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.
Languageishuman-specific
Human-specific----differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.
2.Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage(CharlesHockett)
Thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.人类语言区别于任何一种动物交际系统的规定性特征。
•Arbitrariness•Productivity/Creativity
•Duality双重•Displacement移位•Culturaltransmission
Arbitrariness
Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.
Onomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:
rumble,crackle,bang,….Chinese:
putong,shasha,dingdang…)
Productivity/creativity
Peculiartohumanlanguages,usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.
Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.
Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires
Duality
Lowerlevel----sounds(meaningless)Higherlevel----meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)
Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.
Displacement
Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:
realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.
Agibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyear
Thereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.
Culturaltransmission
Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.
AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.
Thestoryofawolfchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.
3.Functionsoflanguage
Phatic寒暄:
forestablishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas.Greetings,farewellsandcommentsontheweatherservethisfunction.eg.“Aniceday,isn’tit?
”doesn’tinformthehearerabouttheweather,foritisafacthehimselfcansee.Butitdoesmakethehearerfeelgoodbecausethesentenceshowstherelationshipbetweenthemremainswhatitwas.eg.“Howareyoutoday?
”thespeakerisnotreallyinterestedinthehearer’sstateofhealth,butisanexpressionofgoodwill
Directive指令:
getthehearertodosomething.eg.“Passmethesalt,please”.
Informative信息:
giveinformationaboutfacts.Informativestatementsareoftenjudgedastrueorfalse.eg.“Waterboilsat212degreeFahrenheit”isatruestatement
Interrogative:
getinformationfromothers.eg.“Whendidhearrive?
”
Expressive表达:
expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.eg.MyGod!
”or“Wearemostgratefulforthis.”
Evocative表情:
createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease)eg.jokesaredesignedtoamuseorentertaintheaudience;advertisingisdevisedtourgecustomerstobuythementionedgoods;propogandaaimstoinfluencepublicopinionalongacertainline.
Evocativefunction表情------touselanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimistoamuse,startle,anger,soothe,worryorplease.eg.jokesaredesignedtoamuseorentertaintheaudience;advertisingisdevisedtourgecustomerstobuythementionedgoods;propogandaaimstoinfluencepublicopinionalongacertainline.
4.Theoriginoflanguage
Thedivine-origintheory----LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.
Theinventiontheory----imitative,criesofnature,thegruntsofmenworkingtogether.
Theevolutionarytheory----theresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment.
5.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenhumanlanguageandanimallanguage
Humanlanguageisdifferentfromanimallanguageinthattheformerisasymbolicsystem,whereasthelatterislargelysymptomatic征兆性.
Bysymptomaticity,wemeanthetokens标志animalsuseintheircommunicationarespontaneousreflectionsoftheirinternalstatesoremotions.Therefore,animalshaveanaturalcommunicationsystemratherthanpossesslanguage.
二,linguistics
Whatislinguistics?
FourprinciplesoflinguisticstudiesThescopeormajorbranchesoflinguisticsSomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics
1.Whatislinguistics?
Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.
2.Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudies
Exhaustiveness/adequacyConsistencyEconomyObjectivity
3.Thescopeormajorbranchesoflinguistics
Theoreticallinguistics/ Microlinguistics微观语言学:
PhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmatics
Useoflinguistics/Macroliguistics宏观语言学:
AppliedlinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics
Theoreticallinguistics
Phonetics----speechsound(description,classification,transcription):
articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.
Phonology----soundpatternsoflanguages
Morphology----theformofwords
Syntax----therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.
Semantics----themeaningoflanguage
Pragmatics----whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse
Useoflinguistics
Appliedlinguistics----linguisticsandlanguageteaching
Sociolinguistics----socialfactors(e.g.class,education)affectlanguageusePsycholinguistics----linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocess
Stylistics----linguisticsandliterature
Someotherapplications
AnthropologicallinguisticsNeurolinguistics神经
Computationallinguistics(e.g.machinetranslation)
Experimental,philosophical,historical,clinical病理,discourse话语,external&internallinguistics
4.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics
Descriptivevsprescriptive
Descriptive描写
----describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistics)eg.Peopledo\don’tsay….Thesunrisesfromtheeast.
Prescriptive规定----laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguagei.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotdo.(traditionalgrammar)eg.Do\Don’tsay….Youshouldobeytherule.Linguisticstudiesbefore20thcenturyarelargelyprescriptiveinthesensethatmanyearlygrammarswerebasedon“high”(literary,religious)writtenlanguage.
Synchronicvsdiachronic
Synchronic共时study----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)eg.thestudyofEnglishinShakespearetime.
Diachronic历时study----descriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)
Speechvswriting
Thetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.
Speech----primarymediumoflanguage.Genetically,childrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite.
Writing----laterdeveloped,learnedandtaughtlater.Withwriting,messagecanbecarriedthroughtime&space.
Languevsparole(F.deSaussure)
Langue语言theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.eg.Chinese
Parole话语----therealizationoflangueinactualuse.eg.varietiesofChinese
Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.社会惯例/法规,
Differencesbetweenthem:
L.isabstract;P.isspecifictothesituationinwhichitoccurs.
L.isnotactuallyspokenbyanyone;P.isalwaysanaturaloccurringevent.自然出现的语言事件
Lisrelativelystable&sys
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