现代词汇学答案及英文课本.docx
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现代词汇学答案及英文课本.docx
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现代词汇学答案及英文课本
第一章词的概述
Exercisesanswer
Chapter1
Ⅵ.
Allthewordsbelongtothenativestock.
Ⅴ
1.fromDanish
2.fromFrench
3.fromGerman
4.fromLatin
5.fromItalian
6.fromSpanish
7.fromArabic
8.fromChinese
9.fromRussian
10.fromGreek
英语参考资料
Chapter1
AGeneralSurveyofaWord
Ⅰ.Definitionofaword
Aristotledefinedawordasthesmallestsignificantunitofspeech-adefinitionwhichheldswayuntilrecently.Modernmethodsofanalysishavediscoveredsemanticunitsbelowthewordlevel.Anewtermisthereforeneededtodenotethesmallestsignificantelementofspeech;incontemporarylinguistictheoryitisknownasamorpheme.
Bloomfielddistinguishesbetweentwotypesoflinguisticforms:
freeformsandboundforms.Freeformscanstandbythemselvesandsometimesactasacompleteutterancewhereasboundformscannot.Forexample,thewordnicelycontainsthefreeformnice,andtheboundform-ly.Theformercanoccurasanindependentunitandevenasasentence(Whatabouttheotherfilm?
-Nice).Butthesuffix-lycannotstandbyitself,tosaynothingofactingasacompleteutterance.AccordingtoBloomfield,awordisaminimalfreeform.
Lexicologydealsbydefinitionwithwordsandwordformingmorphemes,thatistosay,withsignificantunits.Itfollowsthattheseelementsmustbeinvestigatedintheirformandintheirmeaning.Therefore,fromthelexicologicalpointofview,awordisacombinationofform(phonological)andmeaning(lexicalandgrammatical).Inaddition,awordactsasastructuralunitofasentence.
Ⅱ.Soundandmeaning
TheNaturalistshavearguedthattheoriginoflanguageliesinonomatopoeia,thatpeoplebegantalkingbycreatingiconicsignstoimitatethesoundsheardaroundtheminnature.Theymaintainthatthereisanaturalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.TheConventionalists,ontheotherhand,holdthattherelationsbetweensoundandmeaningareconventionalandarbitrary.Factshaveprovedthisargumenttobevalid.Wordsthatconveythesamemeaninghavedifferentphonologicalformsindifferentlanguages-forexample,Englishmeat/mi:
t/,Chineseròu.Alternatively,thesamephonologicalformsmayconveydifferentmeanings-forexample,sight,site,cite.
Ⅲ.Meaningandconcept
Meaningiscloselyrelatedtoaconcept.Aconceptisthebaseofthemeaningofaword.Awordisusedtolabelaconcept.Itactsasthesymbolforthatconcept.Theconceptisabstractedfromtheperson,thing,relationship,idea,event,andsoon,thatwearethinkingabout.Wecallthisthereferent.Thewordlabelstheconcept,whichisabstractedfromthereferent;theworddenotesthereferent,butdoesnotlabelit.Thisapproachtomeaningcanbediagrammedasfollows:
word-concept-referent
Theformulashowsthatthewordreferstothereferentthroughaconcept.
Aconceptisanabstractionfromthingsofthesamekind.
Whensomeonesays"chair"toyou,howdoyouknowitisachair?
Itissimplybecauseitshowscertaincharacteristicssharedbyalltheobjectsyoucallchairs.Youhaveabstractedthesecharacteristicsfromyourexperienceofchairs,andfromwhatyouhavelearnedaboutchairs.Fromthisitcanbededucedthataconceptreferstosomethingingeneral,butnotsomethinginparticular.Aword,however,canrefertoboth,asisshowninthefollowingtwosentences:
...somehavebeguntorealizethattheautomobileisamixedblessing.
Theautomobilewasstalledinasnowstorm.
Theword"automobile"inthefirstsentencereferstosomethingingeneralwhereasthewordinthesecondsentencereferstoaspecificone.
Therearetwoaspectstothemeaningofaword:
denotationandconnotation.Theprocessbywhichthewordreferstothereferentiscalled"denotation".Forexample,thedenotationof"dog"is"caninequadruped".Thedenotativemeaningofawordusuallyreferstothedictionarydefinitionofaword.Asopposedtodenotation,connotationreferstotheemotionalaspectofaword.Forexample,theconnotationof"dog"mightinclude"friend","helper","competition",etc.
Ⅳ.Lexicalitemandvocabulary
Aunitofvocabularyisgenerallyreferredtoasalexicalitem.Acompleteinventoryofthelexicalitemsofalanguageconstitutesthatlanguage'sdictionary.InNewHorizonsinLinguistics,JohnLyonspointsoutthat"Lexicalitemsareoftenreferredto,loosely,aswords."
Thetermvocabularyusuallyreferstoacompleteinventoryofthewordsinalanguage.Butitmayalsorefertothewordsandphrasesusedinthevariantsofalanguage,suchasdialect,register,terminology,etc.Thevocabularycanbedividedintoactivevocabularyandpassivevocabulary:
theformerreferstolexicalitemswhichapersonuses;thelattertowordswhichheunderstands.
TheEnglishvocabularyischaracterizedbyamixtureofnativewordsandborrowedwords.MostofthenativewordsareofAnglo-Saxonorigin.TheyformthebasicwordstockoftheEnglishlanguage.Inthenativestockwefindwordsdenotingthecommonestthingsnecessaryforlife,naturalphenomena,divisionsoftheyear,partsofthebody,animals,foodstuffs,trees,fruits,humanactivityandotherwordsdenotingthemostindispensablethings.Thenativestockalsoincludesauxiliaryandmodalverbs,pronouns,mostnumerals,prepositionsandconjunctions.Thoughsmallinnumber,thesewordsplaynosmallpartinlinguisticperformanceandcommunication.
Borrowedwords,usuallyknownasloan-words,refertolinguisticformstakenoverbyonelanguageordialectfromanother.
TheEnglishvocabularyhasreplenisheditselfbycontinuallytakingoverwordsfromotherlanguagesoverthecenturies.TheadoptionofforeignwordsintotheEnglishlanguagebeganevenbeforetheEnglishcametoEngland.TheGermanicpeople,ofwhichtheAnglesandSaxonsformedapart,hadlongbeforethiseventbeenincontactwiththecivilizationofRome.WordsofLatinorigindenotingobjectsbelongingtothatcivilization(wine,butter,cheese,inch,mile,mint,etc.)graduallyfoundtheirwayintotheEnglishlanguage.
WhentheEnglishweresettledinEngland,theycontinuedtoborrowwordsfromLatin,especiallyafterRomanChristianitywasintroducedintotheislandinthesixthandseventhcenturies.AconsiderablenumberofLatinwords,chieflysignifyingthingsconnectedwithreligionortheservicesofthechurch,wereadoptedintotheEnglishlanguage.Amongthosewhicharestillpartofthelanguagearebishop,candle,creed,font,mass,monk,priestandagreatmanyothers.
TotheDanesandNorthmentheEnglishvocabularyalsoowesagreatdeal.Fromthesesettlers,EnglishadoptedasurprisingnumberofwordsofScandinavianoriginthatbelongtothecore-vocabularytoday:
they(them,their),both,ill,die,egg,knife,low,skill,take,till,though,want,etc.
TheNormanConquestin1066introducedalargenumberofFrenchwordsintotheEnglishvocabulary.Frenchadoptionswerefoundinalmosteverysectionofthevocabulary:
law(justice,evidence,pardon...),warfare(conquer,victory,archer...),religion(grace,repent,sacrifice...),architecture(castle,pillar,tower...),finance(pay,rent,ransom...),rank(baron,master,prince...),clothing(collar,mantle,vestment...),food(dinner,feast,sauce...)andmanyothers.AsanindicationofthetremendousinfluxofFrenchwords,wemaynotethat,discountingpropernames,thereare39wordsofFrenchorigininthefirst43linesoftheProloguetoChaucer'sCanterburyTales.
TherevivalofartandliteraturebasedonancientGreeklearning,knownastheRenaissanceinthe14th,15thand16thcenturies,openedupanewsourcefromwhichtheEnglishvocabularycouldbeenriched.EnglishhasborrowedmanywordsfromGreekthroughthemediumofLatinandasmallernumberdirect,suchasrhapsody,crisis,topic,pathos,stigma,coma,tonic,cosmos,dogma.FromGreekalsocomesawiderangeoflearnedaffixes,suchasbio-,chrono-,geo-,hydro-,logo-,auto-,hemi-,hetero-,homo-,mono-,neo-,epi-,meta-,para-,-ism,-ise,-logy,-graph,-phile,-meter,-gramandmanyothers.
Fromthesixteenthcenturyonward,therewasagreatincreaseinthenumberoflanguagesfromwhichEnglishadoptedwords.Frenchcontinuedtoprovideaconsiderablenumberofnewwords,forexample,trophy,vase,moustache,unique,attic,soup.TheItalianelementwasparticularlystronginthefieldsofart,musicandliterature,forexample,model,sonnet,opera,vista,soprano,quartet.TherewasalsoaSpanishelementinEnglish,forexample,sherry,potato,cargo,parade,cigar.German,PortugueseandDutchwerealsofertilesourcesofloanwords,forexample,dock,carouse,plunder,zinc,quarts(German);flamingo,cobra,caste,buffallo,pagoda(Portuguses);booze,wainscot,tackle,buoy,skipper,dock(Dutch).
Attheturnofthe19thand20thcenturies,withagrowthofinternationaltradeandtheurgetocolonizeanddominatetheunknownworld,EnglishmadeanumberofdirectadoptionsfromlanguagesspokenoutsideEurope.Someexamplesare:
sultan,sheikh,ghoul,roc(Arabic);boomerang,billabong,wombat,dingo(Australian);lichi,sampan,typhoon,ketchup(Chinese);shibboleth,kibbutz(Hebrew);schmozze,schmaltz(Yiddish);shah,divan,shawl,caravan(Persian);caften,yoghourt,kiosk,bosh(Turkish);bwana,safari(Swahili);hara-kiri.tycoon,kamikaze,judo(Japanese);guru,pundit,swami,pukka(Hindustani);proa,amok,raffia,sarong(Indonesian);rouble,czar,troika,commissar(Russian).
SincetheendoftheSecondWorldWar,stillmoreloanwordshav
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