英语论文The Effects of Affective Strategy Training in the ESL Classroom.docx
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英语论文The Effects of Affective Strategy Training in the ESL Classroom.docx
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英语论文TheEffectsofAffectiveStrategyTrainingintheESLClassroom
TheEffectsofAffectiveStrategyTrainingintheESLClassroom
Abstract
Thispaperpresentsthefindingsofaninterventiondesignedtoexaminetheeffectsofaffectivestrategyinstructiononmeasuresofsecondlanguageproficiencyandofself-efficacy.Theparticipantsinthisstudywere31adultintermediate-levelESLlearnersregisteredinafull-timeESLprograminapost-secondaryinstitutioninCanada.Twoclassesparticipatedinthisstudy;onereceived12hoursofaffectivestrategytraining,andthesecondservedasacomparisongroup.AtWeeks1,5,10,and15,learnerscompletedtwosetsoforalinformation-gaptasks:
picturestorynarrativesandobjectdescriptions.Priortoeachtask,theyprovidedscalarjudgmentsoftheirabilitytoprovideaccuratedescriptions.Thedatafromtheself-reportquestionnairesandfromthetranscriptsoftheaudio-tapeswereusedtoanalysestudents'perceptionsofself-efficacyandtheirsecondlanguageperformance.Theresultsarediscussedwithrespecttothecontextinwhichthetrainingwasconducted.
Introduction
Differentialsuccessinsecondorforeignlanguagelearninghasbeenattributedtoindividualdifferencessuchasintelligence,aptitude,personality,motivation,andanxiety.Thedevelopmentofhumanisticpsychology,whichsoughttoestablishaholisticapproachtolearners,ledtoanincreasedfocusonindividuals'emotionsandfeelings.Maslow(1971),forinstance,positedthatcognitiveandaestheticgoalsleadingtoself-actualizationcouldnotbeachievedunlesshumanphysiologicalneeds,theneedforsafetyandsecurity,theneedforbelonging,andtheneedforself-esteemhadbeensatisfied.Rogers(1969)arguedthatlearningshouldbeexperientialandconvergentwithlearnergoalsandthatitshouldtakeplaceinasupportiveenvironment.[-1-]
Insecondlanguagelearning,thisaffectiveapproachmanifesteditselfinmethodssuchasCommunityLanguageLearning(Curran,1972)andSuggestopedia(Lozanov,1979).Astrongproponentofhumanisminlanguageteaching,Stevick(1980)arguedthat"...[languagelearning]successdependslessonmaterials,techniquesandlinguisticanalyses,andmoreonwhatgoesoninsideandbetweenthepeopleintheclassroom"(p.4).Inhisaffectivefilterhypothesis,Krashen(1982)positedtheexistenceofaninternalbarrierthatinterferedwithsecondlanguageacquisitionwhenlearnerswereanxiousorbored.Schumann(1997,2001),informedbyrecentdevelopmentsincognitionresearch(Damasio,1994;LeDoux,1996),proposedthatthepsychologyandneurobiologyofstimulusappraisal(basedonnovelty,pleasantness,goal/needsignificance,copingpotential,andtheself-andsocialimageofthelearner)determinetheextenttowhichsecondlanguagelearningisachieved.Thesetheoriesregardingtheimportantroleofaffectinlearninghaveresonatedstronglywiththeintuitionsofmanysecondandforeignlanguageteachers.
Overthepastthreedecades,researchinsecondlanguageacquisitionhasconfirmedhypothesesthatlanguagelearningisindeedenhancedbyattentiontoaffect.Gardnerandcolleagues(Gardner,1985;Gardner&Clément,1990;Gardner&Lambert,1972;Gardner&MacIntyre,1993)conductedextensiveinvestigationsofindividualdifferencesinlanguagelearningsuccess;otherstudies(Horwitz,Horwitz,&Cope,1986;Horwitz&Young,1991;MacIntyre&Gardner,1989,1991b)examinedtheconstructoflanguageanxiety.Price(1991)interviewedlearnerswhoreporteddebilitatinganxietycausedbyinstructorswhocriticizedtheirpronunciationorfocusedonclassroomperformanceratherthanlearning.Bailey's(1983)diaryofherFrenchclassroomexperienceindicatedthatcompetitivenessandanxietymotivatedherbothtoworkharderonsomeoccasions(facilitatinganxiety)andtoavoidclassonothers(debilitatinganxiety).Young's(1990)researchwithlanguagelearnerssuggestedthatteacherswhousedhumourandcreatedafriendly,supportive,andrelaxedclassroomatmospherethatencouragedrisk-takingweremosthelpfulinalleviatingforeignlanguageanxietyandfacilitatinglearning.
Themajorityofstudiesthatexploredtherelationshipbetweenaffectandsecondlanguageperformancewerenon-interventions(e.g.,Brown,Cunha,Frota,&Ferreira,2001;Gardner,1985;Gardner,Moorcroft,&MacIntyre,1987;MacIntyre&Gardner,1989;Madsen,Brown,&Jones,1991;Price,1991;Young,1991).Althoughseverallaboratoryexperimentswereconductedinthisarea(e.g.,Gardner,Day,&MacIntyre,1992;MacIntyre&Gardner,1991a,1994a,1994b;Steinberg&Horwitz,1986;Stevick,1999),fewexperimentalclassroomstudiesfocusingonaffecthavebeendocumented.AseriesofinterventionsconductedbyMoskowitz(1981,1999)withhighschoolsecondandforeignlanguagestudentsreportedpositivecorrelationsbetweentheuseofhumanisticexercisesandstudents'attitudestowardslanguagelearning,theirclassmates,andthemselves.Resultsofquestionnairesadministeredtotheteachersinthisstudyalsoshowedimprovedattitudestowardtheirclassesandenhancedself-conceptandself-awareness.Cohen,Weaver,andLi(1998)investigatedtheeffectsofarangeofspeakingstrategiesonthreetasksperformedbyuniversityforeignlanguagestudents:
aself-description,astoryretelling,andadescriptionofafavoritecity.Someofthemanystrategiesconsideredbyteachersandstudentsinthethreeexperimentalclassestobeusefulfortheoraltaskswereaffective:
deepbreathing,positiveself-talk,visualizationexercises,relaxationtechniques,takingone'semotionaltemperature,self-rewards,persistence,andrisk-taking.Superiorresultsinoverallspeakingperformanceshownbytheexperimentalgrouponthecitydescriptiontaskwereattributedtotheuseofstrategies,someofwhichwereaffective;theeffectoftheaffectivestrategycomponentalone,however,couldnotbepartialedout.AsChamot(2001)stated,thereisacontinuingneedformoreinterventionstudiestodeterminetheeffectsofstrategytrainingonlanguagelearningandproficiency.OneoftheissuesthatthepresentstudywillexamineistheeffectofaffectivestrategyinstructiononESLlearners'performanceonoraltasks.[-2-]
Self-Efficacy
Researchhasshownthatperformancecanbefacilitatedbytheenhancementofself-efficacy,"people'sjudgmentsoftheircapabilitiestoorganizeandexecutecoursesofactionrequiredtoattaindesignatedtypesofperformances"(Bandura,1986,p.391).Perceptionsofself-efficacyinfluencemotivation:
theydeterminethegoalsindividualsset,theefforttheyexpendtoachievethosegoals,andtheirwillingnesstopersistinthefaceoffailure(Bandura,1986).These,inturn,influenceachievement(see,forexample,Locke,1996;Pintrich&DeGroot,1990;Schunk,1984,1991;Schunk&Gunn,1985).Muchresearchinthehealthdomain(e.g.,treatmentofphobias;seeBandura,1997)andinL1educationalcontexts(Pajares,1996;Schunk,1995)hasdemonstratedthepositiveeffectsofstrategyinstructiononself-efficacy.
Arelatedconstructisself-efficacyforlearning,bywhich"participantsjudgetheircapabilitiesforlearningtosolvetypesofproblems,writetypesofparagraphs,oranswertypesofquestions,ratherthantheircertaintyforbeingabletosuccessfullyperformthosetasks"(Schunk,1996,p.8).Researchfrommainstreameducationcontendsthat
[s]trategyinstructioncanfosterself-efficacyforlearning.Thebeliefthatoneunderstandsandcaneffectivelyapplyastrategythataidslearningleadstoagreatersenseofcontroloverlearningoutcomes,whichpromotesself-efficacyandmotivationtoapplythestrategy.(Pintrich&Schunk,1996,p.179)
Self-efficacyisrequisiteforsuccessfullanguagelearning.AgrowingbodyofliteraturedevelopedbyClémentandassociateshasestablishedthataclosely-relatedconstruct,linguisticself-confidence,isanimportantcomponentofsecond/foreignlanguagemotivation(see,forexample,Clément,Dörnyei,&Noels,1994;Clément,Gardner,&Smythe,1977;Clément&Kruidenier,1985;Dörnyei&Clément,2001;Gardner,Tremblay,&Masgoret,1997;Noels&Clément,1996).However,self-efficacyandself-confidencearenotsynonymous:
asDörnyei(2001)explained,"self-efficacyisalwaysspecifictoaconcretetaskwhereasself-confidenceisusuallyusedtorefertoageneralizedperceptionofone'scopingpotentials,relevanttoarangeoftasksandsubjectdomains."(p.56)
Limitedexperimentalresearchontask-specificself-efficacyandL2strategyinstructionhasbeenconductedtodate.Twointerventionstudies(Chamot,Barnhardt,El-Dinary,Carbonaro,&Robbins,1993;Chamot,Robbins,&El-Dinary,1993;forasummary,seeChamot,1994)examinedtheeffectsofmetacognitive,cognitive,andsocialstrategyinstructionreceivedbylearnersofJapanese,Russian,andSpanish.Amongothermeasures,studentscompletedlearningstrategyquestionnairesinwhichtheyreportedtheirfrequencyofstrategyuseinperformingspecificL2tasks,andself-efficacyquestionnairesinwhichtheyratedtheirperceptionsoftheirabilitytocompletethoseparticulartasks.Positiverelationshipsbetweenthefrequentuseoflearningstrategiesandperceptionsofself-efficacywerefoundinmostgroups;affectivestrategies,however,werenotincludedintheresearchdesign.Anexaminationoftheeffectsofaffectivestrategyinstructiononself-efficacyisincludedinthisstudy.[-3-]
EnhancingClassroomAffect
Anincreasingnumberofmaterialshaveemergedovertheyearstoenhanceaffectinsecondlanguageclassrooms.Oxford(1990,p.163)delineatedthreetypesofaffectivestrategiesthatcanbeusedtoregulatelearnerattitudes,motivation,andemotions.Theseincludest
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