WhyHistoriansDisagree.docx
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WhyHistoriansDisagree.docx
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WhyHistoriansDisagree
Why-Historians-Disagree
WhyHistoriansDisagree
1 Moststudentsareusuallyintroducedtothestudyofhistorybywayofafattextbookandbecomequicklyimmersedinavastseaofnames,dates,eventsandstatistics.Thestudents'skillsarethentestedbyexaminationsthatrequirethemtoshowhowmuchofthedatatheyremember;themoretheyremember,thehighertheirgrades.Fromthisexperienceanumberofconclusionsseemobvious:
thestudyofhistoryisthestudyof"facts"aboutthepast;themore"facts"youknow,thebetteryouareasastudentofhistory.Theprofessionalhistorianissimplyonewhobringstogetheraverylargenumberof"facts".Thereforestudentsoftenbecomeconfusedupondiscoveringthathistoriansoftendisagreesharplyevenwhentheyaredealingwithethesameevent.
2 Theircommonsensereactiontothisstateofaffairsistoconcludethatonehistorianisrightwhiletheotheriswrong.Andpresumably,historianswhoarewrongwillhavetheir"facts"wrong.Thisisseldomthecase,however.Historiansusuallyallarguereasonablyandpersuasively.And,the"facts"---thenames,dates,events,statistics--ussallyturnouttobecorrect.Moreover,theyoftenfindthatcontendinghistoriansmoreorlessagreeonthefacts;thatis,theyusemuchthesamedata.Theycometodifferentconclusionsbecausetheyviewthepastformadifferentperspective.History,whichseemed
betweenthem.
4 Tounderstandwhyhistoriansdisagree,studentsmustconsideraproblemtheyhavemoreorlesstakenforgranted.Theymustaskthemselveswhathistoryreallyis.
5 Initsbroadestsense,historydenotesthewholeofthehumanpast.Morerestrictedisthenotionthathistoryistherecordedpast,thatis,thatpartofhumanlifewhichhasleftsomesortofrecordsuchasfolktales,artifacts,orwrittendocuments.Finally,historymaybedefinedasthatwhichhistorianswriteaboutthepast.Ofcoursethethreemeaningsarerelated.Historiansmustbasetheiraccountsontheremainsofthepast,leftbypeople.Obviouslytheycannotknoweverythingforthesimplereasonthatnoteveryevent,everyhappening,wasfullyandcompletelyrecorded.Thereforethehistoriancanonlyapproximatehistoryatbest.Noonecaneverclaimtohaveconcludedthequest.
这种看法几乎难以令人满意。
学生们不禁觉得,关于同一个历史事件的两种截然相反的观点不可能同时正确;然而,他们缺乏判断孰是孰非的能力。
要理解历史学家们为什么意见不统一,学生们必须考虑一个他们或多或少已经认为理所当然的问题。
他们必须问问自己,历史到底是什么。
从最广义的角度看,历史是指人类过去的全部。
若加以限定,历史是有记录的过去,即人类生活中留下某种记录的那部分,如明间故事、手工制品或书面文件等。
最后,历史也可以被定义为历史学家们对过去的描述。
当然,这三种定义是相互关联的。
历史学家们对历史的描述必须以过去人们的遗物为基础。
显然,他们不可能清楚过去的一切,原因很简单,并非过去的每一大小事件都被全面完整地记录下来。
因此,历史学家们至多只能是接近历史。
没有哪位历史学家敢断言自己已终止了对历史的探索。
6 Butthisdoesnotsayenough.Ifhistorianscannotknoweverythingbecausenoteverythingwasrecorded,neitherdotheyusealltherecordsthatareavailabletothem.Rather,theyselectonlythoserecordstheydeemmostsignificant.Moreover,theyalsore-createpartsofthepast.Likedetectives,theypiecetogetherevidencetofillinthegapsintheavailablerecords.
7 HistoriansareabletoselectandcreateevidencebyusingsometheoryofhumanmotivationsandbehaviorSometimesthisappearstobeeasy,requiringverylittlesopisticationandsubtlety.Thus,forexample,historiansinvestigatingAmerica'sevtryintoWorldWarIwouldprobablyfindthatthesinkingofamericanmerchantshipsonthehighseasbyGermansubmarineswasrelevanttotheirdiscussion.Atthesametime,theywouldmostlikelynotuseevidencethatPresidentWoodrowWilsonwasdissatisfiedwitheanewhatheboughtduringthefirstmonthsof1917.Thechoiceastowhichfacttouseisbasedonatheory--admittedly,inthiscasearathercrudetheory,butatheorynonetheless.Itwouldgosomethinglikethis:
Nationalleaderscontemplatingwararemorelikelytobeinfluencedbybelligerentactsagainsttheircountriesthanbytheirunhappinesswiththeirhaberdashers.
但这种解释还是不够。
如果说历史学家因为过去的一切并非都有记载而不能全面了解历史,他们也不会全部采用获得的所有历史记录。
相反,他们只挑选那些他们认为最重要的记录来用。
此外,他们还对部分历史进行重新创造。
就像侦探一样,他们要拼凑已有证据来填补现有记录中的空白。
根据某些有关人类动机和行为的理论,历史学家能够挑选和创造证据。
有时,这看起来很容易,不需要复杂的经验和敏锐的观察力。
比如说,那些研究美国参加第一次世界大战原因的历史学家很有可能会认为,德国潜水艇击沉在公海航行的美国商船这件事与他们的讨论有关。
与此同时,他们绝不会使用伍德罗.威尔逊总统对他在1917年头几个月买的一顶新帽子不满意这样的证据。
选择使用哪些事实是基于一种理论---不可否认,在这种情况下,这是一个相当粗糙的理论,但不管怎么说,它是一种理论。
这个理论大致是这样的:
对于考虑战争问题的国家领导人来说,他们更可能受到针对他们国家的寻衅行为的影响,而不是受到对服饰经销商的不满的影响。
8 Ifthechoiceswereassimpleasthis,theproblemwouldbeeasilyresoved.butthechoiceswerenotsoeasytomake.HistoriansinvestigatingtheUnitedStates'entryintoWorldWasIwillfindinadditiontoGermansubmarinewarfareawholeseriesofotherfactsthatcouldberelevanttotheeventunderstudy.Forinstance,theywillfindthattheBritishgovernmenthadapropagandamachineatworkintheUnitedStatesthatdiditsbesttowinpublicsupportfortheBritishcause.TheywilldiscoverthatAmericanbankershadmadelargeloanstotheBritish,loansthatwouldnotberepaidintheeventofaBritishdefeat.Theywillreadoftheinterceptionofthe"zimmermanNote,"inwhichtheGermanForeignSecretaryorderedtheGermanministerinMexico,intheeventofwar,tosuggestanalliancebetweenGermanyandMexicowherebyMexcio,withGermansupport,couldwinbackterritorytakenformMexicobytheUnitedStatesintheMexicanWar.TeywillalsofindamongmanyAmericanpoliticalleadersadeepconcernoverthebalanceofpowerinEurope,abalancethatwouldbedestroyed--toAmerica'sdisadvantage--iftheGermanswereabletodefeattheFrenchandtheBritishandtherebyemergeasthesolemajorpowerinEurope.
如果选择都如此简单,那问题就很容易解决了。
但做出选择不是那么容易。
那些研究美国参加第一次世界大战的历史学家们会发现,除了德国潜水艇战之外,还有其他一系列的史实可能与他们正在研究的事件有关。
例如,他们会发现英国政府的一个宣传机构在美国进行了大量宣传,极力争取美国公众对英国的支持。
他们会发现美国的银行家们给英国发放了大量贷款,一旦英国战败,这些巨额贷款将无法得到偿还。
他们会读到截获的”齐默尔曼外交照会“,里面德国外交部长命令德国驻墨西哥公使节,一旦德美战争爆发,就建议墨西哥政府与德国结成同盟,由此在德国的帮助下,墨西哥可以夺回它在墨西哥战争中被美国夺去的领土。
他们还会发现许多美国政治领导人非常关注欧洲的实力平衡,如果德国打败法国和英国从而成为欧洲唯一的主要强国,这种平衡就会被打破,那将对美国非常不利。
9 Whatthenarehistorianstomakeofthesefacts?
Onegroupcouldsimplylistthem.Bydongso,theywouldbemakingtwoimportantassumptions:
(1)thosefactstheyputontheirlistare themainreasons,whilethosetheydonotlistarenotimportant;and
(2)thosethingstheyputontheirlistareofequalimportantanceinexplainingtheU.S.role.Butanothergroupofhistoriansmightarguethatthelistisincompleteinthatitdoesnottakeintoaccountthegenerallypro-BritishviewsofWoodrowWilson,viewsthatdisagreementamongthehistorians.Moreover,becausethesecondgroupraisethequestionofWilson'sviews,theywillfindanumberofrelevantfactsthatthefirstgrouphisteachers,thebooksheread,andthebookshewrote.Inshort,althoughbothgroupsofhistoriansaredealingwiththesamesubjecttheywillcometodifferentconclusionsandusedifferentfactstosupporttheirpointsofview.Thefactsselected,andthoseignored,willdependnotontheproblemstudiedbutonthepointsofviewofthehistorians.
10 Similarlyathirdgroupofhistoriansmightmaintainthatthevariousitemsonthelistshouldnotbegiveneuqalweight,thatoneofthereasonslisted,say,bankers'loans,wasmostimportant.Thetheoryherewouldbethateconomicmattersarethekeytohumanmotivation,andthatasmallnumberofwealthybankershaveadisproportionateabilitytoinfluencegovernment.
那么,历史学家们将如何来看待和解释这些事实呢?
一组历史学家可能仅仅把它们列出来。
这样做,意味着他们作出了两个重要的假设:
(1)那些他们列出来的事实是主要原因,而那些他们没有列出来的则无足轻重;
(2)在解释美国在战争中所扮演的角色时,那些他们列出来的事实同等重要。
但另一组历史学家可能争辩说,所列内容不够完整,因为这些事实没有把伍德罗.威尔逊总统的亲英观点考虑进去,这个观点源于总统本人的背景和教育经历。
结果,历史学家们的意见出现了分歧。
而且,由于第二组历史学家提出了威尔逊的亲英观点这一问题,他们会找出许多倍第一组历史学家所忽略的相关史实。
他们会关注威尔逊的教育经历、他的老师对他的影响、他读过的书以及他所著的书。
总而言之,虽然两组历史学家在讨论同一个问题,但他们会得出不同的结论并使用不同的史实来支持自己的观点。
事实的挑选和忽略并不由所研究的问题决定,而是取决于他们的观点。
同样,第三组历史学家可能坚持认为,所列出的各项事实的重要性不应是等同的,而其中的一个原因,如银行家的贷款,是最为重要的。
他们的理论根据是:
经济因素是人类动机的关键,并且为数不多的富有的银行家对政府有着特别大的影响力。
11Intheexamplesgiven,historiansdisagreebecausetheybeginfromdifferentpremises.Butthereisstillanotherrealmofdisagreementwhichstemsformsomethingratherdifferent.Historianssometimesdisagreebecausetheyarenotreallydicussingthesamething.Oftentheyaremerelyconsideringdifferentlevelsofcauseandeffect.Supposetheteacheraskedyou"Whywereyoulateforclassthismorning?
""Iwaslateforclass"youexplained,"becauseIoverslept."Ortouseahistoricalexample,"TheCivilWarbeganbecauseSouthCarolinashorebatteriesopenedfireonthefederalgarrisonatFortSumteronApril12,1861."Neitherstatementcanbefaultedonthegroundsthatititsinaccurate;atthesametime,however,neitherissufficientasanexplanationoftheeventbeingconsidered.Thenextquestionisobvious.Whydidyouoversleep,orwhydidrelationsbetweenonestateandtheFedealgovernmentreachthepointwheredifferenceshadtobesettledbywar?
Inotherwords,wehavetogobeyondtheproximatecauseandprobefurtherandfurther.butaswedigmoredeeplyintotheproblem,theanswerbecomesmoredifficultandcomples.Intheend,youmightarguethattheultimatecauseofyourbeinglatewasthefactthatyouwereborn,butobviouslythisgoestoofarbacktobemeaningful.Tahtyouwerebornisofcourseanecessaryfoctor,butitiisnotasufficientfactor;itdoesnotreallytellenoughtoexplainyourbehaviortoday.SimilarlyyoucouldtracethecauseoftheCivilWarbacktothediscoveryofAmerica,butagain,thatisanecessarybutnotasufficientcause.Thepointatwhichcausesarebothnecessaryandsufficientisnotself-evident.Thereforehistoriansmayagaindisagreeaboutwheretobegintheanalysis.Bynowstudentsshouldseethatthewell-usedphrase"letthefactsspeakforthemselves"hasnorealmeaning.Thefactsdonotspeakforthemselves;historiansusethefactsinaparticularwayandthereforethey,andnotthefacts,aredoingthe speaking.
以上所举的例子中,历史学家
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