经济学原理.docx
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经济学原理.docx
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经济学原理
经济学原理
第1讲导言
第2讲供给与需求:
市场如何运行
第3讲弹性理论及其应用
第4讲消费者行为论
第5讲生产与成本
第6讲企业行为与产业组织
第7讲市场失灵与微观经济政策
第8讲国民收入核算论
第9讲凯恩斯模型
第10讲经济周期:
失业与通货膨胀
第11讲宏观经济政策
经济学原理英语
ThisFYIlistspeoplewhostudiedeconomicsincollege.Itisafunwaytolightenupthelecture.Ontheotherhand,ifyou’rerunningshortontime,thisisagoodcandidatetoskip–studentswillreadilyfinditwhentheyreadthechapter.
(Duetospacelimitations,thisslideomitsafewofthenamesinthecorrespondingFYIboxinthetext.)
The“definition”ofcapitalshownonthisslide(“buildingsandmachines”)isthesamethatappearsinthecorrespondingsectionofthechapter.Amoreformaldefinitionwillbeprovidedinsubsequentchapters.
ThisandthefollowingslidebuildtheCircular-FlowDiagrampiecebypiece.
Inthisdiagram,thegreenarrowsrepresentflowsofincome/payments.Theredarrowsrepresentflowsofgoods&services(includingservicesofthefactorsofproductioninthelowerhalfofthediagram).
Tokeepthegraphsimple,wehaveomittedthegovernment,financialsystem,andforeignsector,asdiscussedonthenextslide.
Youmaywishtochangetheorderinwhichtheelementsappear.Todoso,lookfor“CustomAnimation”inyourversionofPowerPoint.
Suggestion:
Showfirstrow.Explainhowwegettheproductionnumbersfromtheemploymentnumbers.Then,showtherestoftheemploymentnumbers,andgivestudents3minutestocomputetheproductionnumbersforeachemploymentallocation.
ThisexerciseleadsstudentstodiscoverforthemselvesthatpointsunderthePPFarepossiblebutinefficient,whilepointsaboveitarenotpossible.
Here,the“rise”isanegativenumber,because,asyoumovetotheright,thelinefalls(meaningwheatoutputisreduced).
Movingtotherightinvolvesshiftingresourcesfromtheproductionofwheat(whichcauseswheatoutputtofall)totheproductionofcomputers(whichcausescomputerproductiontorise).Producinganadditionalcomputerrequirestheresourcesthatwouldotherwiseproduce10tonsofwheat.
Thisexercisereinforcesthematerialontheprecedingslide.ItisespeciallyusefulifyouplantocoverChapter3(InterdependenceandtheGainsfromTrade)aftercompletingChapter2.
Therearetwowaystogettheanswer.
ThehardwayistocomputetheslopeofbothPPFs.TheslopeofFrance’sPPFequals-600/300=-2,meaningthatFrancemustgiveuptwounitsofwinetogetanadditionalunitofcloth.TheslopeofEngland’sPPF=-200/300=-2/3,meaningthatEnglandonlymustsacrifice2/3ofaunitofwinetogetanadditionalunitofcloth.Thus,theopportunitycostofclothislowerinEnglandthanFrance.
Thequestion,however,doesnotaskforthenumericalvaluesoftheopportunitycostofclothinthetwocountries.Itonlyaskswhichcountryhasaloweropportunitycostofcloth.
Thereisaneasywaytodeterminetheanswer.StudentsmustrememberthattheslopeofthePPFequalstheopportunitycostofthegoodmeasuredonthehorizontalaxis.Then,studentscansimply“eyeball”thetwoPPFstodeterminewhichissteepest.Fromthegraphsshow,it’sprettyeasytoseethatEngland’sPPFisn’tassteep,andthereforetheopportunitycostofclothislowerinEnglandthaninFrance.
ThePPFshowsthetradeoffbetweentheoutputsofdifferentgoodsatagiventime,butthetradeoffcanchangeovertime.
Forexample,overtime,theeconomymightgetmoreworkers(ormorefactoriesormoreland).Or,amoreefficienttechnologymightbeinvented.Bothevents–anincreaseintheeconomy’sresourcesoranimprovementintechnology–causeanexpansioninthesetofopportunities.Thatis,bothallowtheeconomytoproducemoreofoneorbothgoods.
Thisisasimpleexampleofeconomicgrowth,animportantsubjectthatgetsitsownchapterinthemacroeconomicsportionofthetextbook.
Intheexampleshownonthisslide,economicgrowthcausesaparalleloutwardshiftofthePPF.SincethenewPPFisparalleltotheoldone,thetradeoffbetweenthetwogoodsisthesame.However,thisneednotalwaysbethecase.Forexample,ifanewtechnologyhadmoreimpactonthecomputerindustrythanonthewheatindustry,thenthehorizontal(computer)interceptwouldincreasemorethanthevertical(wheat)intercept,andthePPFwouldbecomeflatter:
theopportunitycostofcomputerswouldfall,becausethetechnologyhasmadethemrelativelycheaper(relativetowheat).Goingintomoredetailhereisprobablybeyondthescopeofthischapter.
Here,weareusing“workers”forthemoregeneral“resources,”tokeepthingssimpleandconsistentwiththepreviousexamples.
Thebow-shapedPPFismorerealistic.However,thelinearPPFissimplertoworkwith,andwecanlearnalotabouthowtheeconomyworksusingthelinearPPF.InChapter3,wewillusealinearPPFtoshowhowtradecanmaketwocountries(ortwoindividuals)betteroff.
Note:
Inthe“ProblemsandApplications”attheendofthechapter,problem4asksstudentstoconstructaPPFforaneconomywiththreedifferentworkers(Larry,Moe,andCurly),eachwithadifferentopportunitycost.ThePPFendsuphavingthreelinesegments(oneforeachworker),which--veryroughly--approximatesabow-shape.Afterstudentsworkthroughandunderstandthisproblem,itshouldnotbehardforthemtounderstandthefollowing:
themoredifferentkindsofworkers(or,moregenerally,resources)thereare,thecloserthePPFwillresembleasmoothbowshape.InanactualeconomyliketheU.S.,therearemillionsofdifferentworkerswithdifferentopportunitycosts,soasmoothbow-shapedPPFisanearlyperfectapproximationtotheactualPPF.
Incomeisthefirstdemandshifterdiscussedinthischapterofthetextbook.Ichosetostartwithadifferentone(numberofbuyers),forthefollowingreason:
Indiscussingtheimpactofchangesinincomeonthedemandcurve,thetextbookalsointroducestheconceptofnormalgoodsandinferiorgoods.Studentsmayfinditeasiertolearnaboutcurveshiftsifthepresentationfocusessolelyonacurveshift(atleastinitially)withoutsimultaneouslyintroducingotherconcepts.
Ifyouwishtopresentthedemandshiftersinthesameorderastheyappearinthebook,simplyreordertheslidesinthispresentation.
Beginningeconomicsstudentsoftenhavetroubleunderstandingthedifferencebetweenamovementalongthecurveandashiftinthecurve.Here,theanimationhasbeencarefullydesignedtohelpstudentsseethatashiftinthecurveresultsfromanincreaseinquantityateachprice.
(Amorerealisticscenariowouldinvolveanon-parallelshift,wherethehorizontaldistanceoftheshiftwouldbegreaterforlowerpricesthanhigherones.However,toremainconsistentwiththetextbook,andtokeepthingssimple,thisslideshowsaparallelshift.)
Ifyouarewillingtospendacoupleextraminutesonsubstitutesandcomplements,andhaveablackboardorwhiteboardtodrawon,here’sanidea:
Before(orinsteadof)showingthisslide,drawthedemandcurveforhamburgers.Pickaprice,say$5,anddrawahorizontallineatthatprice,extendingfromtheverticalaxisthroughtheDcurveandcontinuingtotheright.SupposeQ=1000whenP=$5.Labelthisonthehorizontalaxis.
Nowaskyourstudents:
Ifpizzabecomesmoreexpensive,butpriceofhamburgersdoesnotchange,whatwouldhappentothequantityofhamburgersdemanded?
Woulditremainat1000,woulditincrease,orwoulditdecrease?
Explain.
Someandperhapsmoststudentswillseerightawaythatpeoplewillwantmorehamburgerswhenthepriceofpizzarises.Afterestablishingthis,notethattheincreaseinthepriceofpizzacausedanincreaseinthequantitydemandedofhamburgers.Thenstatetheterm“substitutes”andgivethedefinition.
Beforegivingtheotherexamples(listedinthe3rdbulletofthisslide),doasimilarexercisetodeveloptheconceptofcomplements.Finally,givetheexamplesofsubstitutesandcomplementsfromthe3rdbulletpointofthisandthefollowingslides,butmixuptheorderandaskstudentstoidentifywhethereachexampleiscomplementsorsubstitutes.
Studentsshouldnoticethattheonlydeterminantofquantitydemandedthatcausesamovementalongthecurveisprice.Alsonotice:
priceisoneofthevariablesmeasuredalongtheaxesofthegraph.
Here’sahandy“ruleofthumb”tohelpstudentsrememberwhetherthecurveshifts:
Ifthevariablecausingdemandtochangeismeasuredononeoftheaxes,youmovealongthecurve.Ifthevariablethat’scausingdemandtochangeisNOTmeasuredoneitheraxis,thenthecurveshifts.
ThisruleofthumbworkswithallcurvesineconomicsthatinvolveanX-Yrelationship.(I.e.,itworksforthesupplycurve,themarginalcostcurve,theISandLMcurves,amongmanyothers,butitdoesnotapplytocurvesdrawnontimeseriesgraphs.)
Ineachcase,thereareonlythreepossibleanswers:
-Thecurveshiftstotheright
-Thecurveshiftstotheleft
-Thecurvedoesnotshift(thoughtheremaybeamovementalongthecurve)
Pointouttoyourstudentsthattherearenonumbersorunitsoneitheraxis,andweareusing“P1”and“Q1”torepresenttheinitialpriceandquantity,ratherthanspecificnumericalvalues.Tellthemthatthisiscommon,becauseinmucheconomicanalysis,thegoalisonlytoseethedirectionofchanges,notspecificamounts.(Besides,ifweputnumbersonthisgraph,they’djusthavebeenmadeup,sowhybother?
)
Alsopointoutthefollowing:
Thepriceofmusicdownloadsisthesame,butthequantitydemandedisnowhigher.Infact,thisisthenatureofashiftinacurve:
atanygivenprice,thequantityisdifferentthanbefore.
“Non-pricedeterminantsofsupply”simplymeansthethings–otherthanthepriceofa
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