The Evolution of the American Economy.docx
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The Evolution of the American Economy.docx
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TheEvolutionoftheAmericanEconomy
EvolutionofAmericanEconomy
SidneyBatnerJamesH.Soltow
BasicBooks,Inc.,PublishersNY1979
Theimportantthingsformostofusisthatwecanbenefitfromtheexperienceoftheothersandwecanmakeourowndecsionswithsomesenseofhistoricalperspective.
Threegreatapproachesoftheeconomistsare:
AlfredMarshall,LionelRobbinsandJ.R.Commons.
Wepresentthehistoryinthemaking.Thefocusisondecisionssuchasthosethatledtotheshapingofaneconomy.Insightintohistoricdecision-makingprocesseswillbegainedbyexamining1.thevariousobjetivesdesired2.theresourcesthatwereconsideredavailable3.thevariouscoursesofactionthatmighthavebeentaken4.thegravityandextentoftherisksthatweretaken5.theconsequencesofeadoptedpoliciesforthedecisionmakersandforthoseaffectedbythedecisions.
【十九论述葡萄牙人初入美洲】Theirobjectivewasnottoacquireterritoryorevenproducegoods,butrathertoplugintotheexistingsystemsoftrade.
【二十论述葡萄牙人重亚非甚于巴西】BecauseinBraziltherewerernotadingsystemsalreadyorganizedinordertobringvaluablecargoestothecoastforsaleandshipment.
【二十一论葡萄牙人新来】Theyhadlittleintentionofdoinghardworkinthenew-foundland,whatevertheiroriginalsocialstatusinPortuguese,sotheyfirstsoughttoorganizethenativesintoalaborforce.Findingthatdifficult,theyimportedslavesfromAfrica.
【二十一论葡萄牙见败之根本】WhiletheeconomicweaknessofPortugalresultedinpartfromitssmallresourcebaseanddrainofsomeofitsmostvigourouspeopletothecolonies,amajorfactorwasthelackofastrongbusinesscommunity.ItwasprincipallyDutchandEnglishmerchantswhosuppliedtheessentialentrepreneurialservicestoPortugalinregardsoftrading.
【二十二论西班牙之策】Theyhadtocreateaneconomcsystemtotapthegreatwealth...theyreplacedtheIndianupperclassesandecouragedareorientationofproductiontomeettheirownneeds.
【二十三论西班牙堕落为backwater】Mostofthewealthacquiredincolonieswasconsunedbythearistocracy,thebureaucracy,thechurchandthemilitary.BusinessmennevergainedpositionsofinfluenceandpowerinSpanishsociety.
【二十五论荷兰东印度公司无法执行长远在美经济政策】Maximizationoftheprofitinfurtraderequiredthecompanytomonopolyinthatbusiness,whichinturninvolveddiscouragementofagriculturalsettlement.....Theyintroducedapatroonshipsystem,awayofdelegatingtoprivateindividualsmucoftheresponsibilityfororganizingagriculturalsettlements,butitfailed....Thenthecompanynotonlyprovidedthegrantsoflandtosettlersbutalsoopenedupfurtradetoallresidentsinthecolonies....AlthoughHollandwasthegreatesttradingnationinthemiddleofseventeenthcentury,thefurtradecontinuedastheeconomicmainstayofNewNetherlands.
【二十六论荷兰商人权势之大】Thedirectorsofthecompanycouldwritetothegoverningbody:
”ThecoloniesoftheEastIndiesarenotacquisitionsmadebythestate,butbyprivatetraderswhomaysellthemiftheywish,eventotheKingofSpain.”
【二十七论法国以个人推进而非公司推进为入美之计】Thegovernmentwoulddelegatemuchoftheresponsibilityforcolonybuilding,thistimetoprivateindividualsratherthantocharteredcompanies.Farmerswithenterpriseandcapitalwouldbecomeseigneursornobles,bysettlingonthelandstheyweregrantedwith...However,Frenchpeasantsdidnotperceiveenoughofamaterialadvantagetoinducethemtomigrateinlargenumbers.
【二十八论法国殖民地缺粮】France’sinabilitytodevelopagricultureinCanadatosupplyhertropicalpossessionsthusencouragedmigrationtothecoloniesofherarchenemy,whichhelpedtocreatethepopulationpressurethateventuallycrushedNewFrance.
【二十九论法国殖民地失败根源】ThebasicproblemforFrancewastheinabilityofbusinessandgovernmenttofindacloseidentityofinterestinpromotingthenation’scolonialexpansion.
【三十论英国体制之胜法国】Englandwascreatinganinstitutionalframeworkthatenabledenterpreneurstoexploiteconomicopportunitieswithaminimumofrestraint,whileFrancewasexpandingitscontroloverindustryandcommerce.....Thisrequiredareorganizationofpropertyrightsthattookdecision-makingpowerawayfromthemembersofthevillagecommunitytothoswhocouldadjustlandusetothedemandsofthemarkets....Bytheway,theBritishresourcebasewasbroadenoughtosupportawidwerangeofeconomicactivity.
【三十一特许经营】Poolingcapitalandenterpriseinajointstockcompanyandsecuringmonopolyfromthecrownwereofgreatadvantageincarryingoncommercethatinvolvedlongvoyage.
【三十二殖民地经济之根本元素】Organizationalmethodsandfundsofcapital,peopletomigrate,afavourablegovernmentalpolicyandaflowofinformationaboutopportunities.
【三十三商政分权】Theextensivepoliticalandjudicalauthoritygrantedtotheindividualsandgroupsdidhavegreatinfluenceinthedistributionofprivileges....Theprojectorsofthecoloniesalsohadtoshowhowtheirventureswouldcontributetotheincreaseintheeconomicstrengthinthenation.
【三十九英国殖民地农村的组织形态】Intheopen-fieldsystem,inhabitantsresidedinhousesalongthestreetsofavillageratherthanonscatteredfarms.....Ofbasiceconomicsignificancerightfromthestartwastheprivatelandownership.Theabilitytosell,buyandtradethelandmadepossilbleaccumulationsoftheindividuals,andthisunderminedthecommunalsystemoffarmoperations.
【WilliamPenn的殖民政策encouragedadispersionofruralsettlement,theexactoppositeofthefounder’shopeforcompactness.....turnedtheHolyExperimentintoamajorrealestatespeculation.还应细查……剧情不了解啊】
【九十八宪法与市场精神】Federalprotectionwouldembracealltheconditionsimportanttotheexistenceofabroadmarket.....AlegalframeworkofcontractsandpropertyrightsestablishedbytheConstitutioncontributedtothecreationofthemarketsystem....Indeed,Americansalmostfromthebeginningofcolonizationhadlookedtothemarketasaguidefordecidinghowtouseandallocateresources.
【一百二十三投机倒把促进通讯发达】Acommodityissoldintwodifferentplacesatpricesthatdifferbymorethanthecostofthetransportingthecommoditybetweenthem.....Someonewhogotthepriceinformationfrombothmarketscouldprofitbybuyinglowandsellinghigh.Theordersplacedinthelow-pricemarketdrawmoreresourcesintoproducingthecommoditywhereitcanbemademoreefficiently.
【一百五十四决策方式的效率】Decisionstoacquireapublicdomainandtosetthetermsfordisposingofitinordertoencourageitsusewerecentralizedatthenationalgovernmentlevel...Afterthesebasicdecisionsweremadeatthecenter,however,decisionsonwhowastoownlandandhowitwasusedwerelefttocompetitivemarketandthedecentralizeddecisionsoftheindividuals....Becauseofthecentralizeddecision,Americanswerenotplaguedbythedifferingconceptsofownershipandlandtenure.Andbecauseofthedecentralizeddecision-making,thespecializedknowledgeoftimeandplacespossessedbyindividualscouldguidetheland-useintoanefficienttype.
【一百七十六产业保护与资本积累】Protectionmayhaveallowedsomeproducerstoreapeconomiesofscaleandtoengageintheprocessoflearninghowtoemploythedevelopingtechnologiesoflarge-scalefactories.Butprotectionalwayscontinuedlongafterthesebenefitswerereaped.Itthusconsitutedmoreameansoftranferringincometotheprotectedindustriesfromtheusersoftheirproducts.Totheextenthatprotectedindustriesengagedintheproductionofconsumergoodssuchastextiles,thosecontinuingincometransfersmayhaveledtohigherlevelsofcapitalformationasprofitswerereinvested.
【二百四十二平等主义之争论】SomehistoriansarguedthatinUSdisparitieswererelativelynarrowcomparedwithEurope’samdmoreopportunitieswereopentothemodestbackgroundstoattainwealth,andthewell-to-dogroupsofUSwerecomposedprimarilyofactiveandself-mademenratherthanofidlebeneficariesofinheritedwealth.....【二百四十三】Buttheresultofourworkindicatedahighdegreeofinequalityinwealthdistribution.ONtheotherendofthewelathspectrum,onehalfoftheAmericanfamiliesin1860apparentlyhadnowealthatall.【二百四十四】Therichestone-fifthofthefreeadultpopulationin1774possessedfrom60to66percentofthecolonialwealthwhilethebottomhalfhadapproximately8percent.For1860thecorrespondingestimateswere88%and12%.
【二百四十四个人收入】Adults....tendtohavelowincomesandloworevennegativesavingswhentheyareyoung.Thentheirincomesandaccumulationsgrowinthemiddleyearsbeforetaperingoffandinthecaseofsavings,becomingnegative,intheretirementyears.
【中间部分待读】
【二百七十二农业的辉煌】Intheearlyyearsofthe20thcenturyfarmersenjoyedagoldenageofprosperitywhichresultedfromasharpdropintherateofgrowthinagriculturaloutputwhilethedemandforfarmproductscontinuedtoexpandathighratesasaconsequenceofrapidindusrialization.
【二百七十六二十世纪初工业分布不均】In1910sestablishmentsinthestateseastoftheMissisippiandnorthoftheOhioemployed70percentofUSindustrialworkers.
【二百七十七美国人口增长】IntherateofpercapitaincreaseUSlaggedbehindnationssuchasGermanyandJapanthatstartedfromlowerlevel.
【二百七十七新技术】Sincethepatentsystemencouragedinventionbyprotectingthepropertyrightsoftheinventor,thenumberofpatentsgrantedservesasaroughmeasureoftheexpandinginterestinindustrialnovelty...Oppositionbyworkerstotheintroductionoflabor-savingmachinerywasineffective;employershadlittledifficultyinrecruitingnewworkmenontherareoccasionswhentroubledidhappen.
【二百七十八大工业的商品形态】IncontrasttoEurope,whereemphasiscontinuedtobeputofinecraftsmanship,industrialistsinUSwerewillingtoacceptproductsandmethodsthatwereimperfectinqualityiftheyreducedcost......Itwasthemiddleclassthatuseditspurchasingpowertoincorporatefactory
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