现代语言学.docx
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现代语言学.docx
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现代语言学
ACourseofModernLinguistics
Chapter1LanguageandLinguistics
1.langueandparole语言和言语
Whenwearelookingatlanguage,wemaycomeacrosstwoveryimportantterms—langueandparolewhichwereintroducedintolinguisticsbySaussure,aSwisslinguist.Langueisdefinedasthelanguagesystemthatspeakersofthelanguageconformtointheirverbalcommunication.Parolereferstotheconcretespeechthatindividualspeakersproduceintheirverbalcommunication.
2.Whatislanguage?
Languageingeneralis“asystemofsymbolsdesignedforthepurposeofcommunicatingthoughtsorfeelings,throughtheuseofvoicesoundsorwrittensymbolsinorganizedcombinationsandpatterns.”
3.Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的识别性特征
Inthiscourse,we’regoingtodiscusssevendesignfeatures:
arbitrariness,non-arbitrariness,genetic-culturaltransmission,duality,discreteness,productivityandsystematicity.
(1)Arbitrarinessvs.non-arbitrariness语言的任意性和非任意性
Arbitrariness,theimmensefreedomofferedbybroadarbitrarinessoflanguage,issubjecttotheconstraintsimposedbynon-arbitrariness,thenecessarycompliancewithgrammar,idiomaticusageandsocialnorms.
(2)Transmissionoflanguage语言的传递性
Genetictransmission(遗传传递性)wasputforwardbyChomsky.Accordingtohim,languageabilitywasgeneticallydetermined.
Culturaltransmission(文化传递性)wasputforwardbyHockett.Accordingtohim,itistheculturalenvironmentthatplaysacrucialroleinlanguageacquisition.
(3)Dualityoflanguage语言的二重性
Languagehastwolevels.Thehigherlevelisconcernedwithhowmeaningfulunitsarecombinedintoalargerconstructiontoconveymeaning.Atthelowerlevel,languageconsistsofasequenceofsegmentswithoutanymeaninginthemselves.Dualityoflanguagecontributestotheflexibilityandversatilityoflanguagebyfacilitatinglanguagetransmission.
(4)Discretenessoflanguage语言的离散性
Discretenessoflanguagereferstothepropertyoflanguagethatthesymbolsatthelowerlevelallhavedefinableboundaries,allowingvariationsinformbutnogradationorcontinuityinidentity.
(5)Productivityoflanguage语言的创造性
Productivityoflanguagereferstothepropertyoflanguagewhichallowsorenablesthespeakertoconstructorinterpretastringoflinguisticformsthathasneverbeenproducedorencountered,providedthatitcomplieswiththerulesofthelanguage.
(6)Systematicityoflanguage语言的系统性
3.Linguistics语言学
Linguisticsisthescienceoflanguage.
Chapter2Phonetics
Phonetics(语音学)isthesciencethatstudiessounds,especiallyspeechsounds,providingmethodsforthedescription,classificationandtranscriptionofthesoundsusedinspeech.
1.Threebranchesofphonetics语音学的三个分支
(1) articulatoryphonetics发音语音学
(2)acousticphonetics声学语音学
(3)auditoryphonetics听觉语音学
2.Vocalorgans(lungs,larynx,pharynx,mouthandnose)发音器官
thethreeelementsnecessaryforspeechsoundsproduction:
thevibrationofaphysicalbodyortheturbulentairflow,theacousticnoiseisresonatedandmagnifiedbythebodiesofairinthevocaltract;thevariationsintheshapesoftheair-containersinthevocaltractdeterminethedifferingqualitiesofthespeechsounds
fourfunctionsofthelarynx(vocalcords)inspeech:
generatingvocalvibrations;producingaglottalstop;producingaglottalfricative;keepingvocalfoldsaparttolettheairpass
3.Consonants辅音
Consonantsaresoundsmadebyaclosureornarrowingsomewhere(i.e.placeofarticulation发音部位)inthevocaltractsothatairflowiseithercompletelyblocked,orsorestrictedthataudiblefrictionisproduced(i.e.mannerofarticulation发音方式)andthesoundsmayormaynotinvolvethevibrationofthevocalfolds(i.e.voicing声带是否振动).
Adistinctivefeature区别性特征
4.Vowels元音
Vowelsaresoundsarticulatedwithoutacompleteclosureinthemouthoradegreeofnarrowingwhichwouldproduceaudiblefrictionandtheairescapesevenlyoverthecentreofthetongue.
distinctivefeatures:
thepositionofthelips,thetwo-dimensionaltongueposition.
Chapter3Phonology
Phonology音系学:
thesciencethatstudieshowspeechsoundsareusedinlanguagetoconveymeanings
1.Phoneme,allophone,andphone音位,音位变体和音素
Phonemeisagroupofsoundsthatarephoneticallysimilarandshowcertaincharacteristicpatternsofdistributioninthelanguageunderconsideration.
Allophonereferstoaphonologicalvariationofaphoneme.
Aphoneisasoundthatisactuallyproducedincommunication;itisofphysicalidentityandisconcreteinnature.
Therelationbetweenphoneme,allophoneandphoneisamatterofrealization.Aphonemeisrealizedbyitsallophones;anallophoneisrealizedinturnbyaphone.
2.Supra-segmentalphonology超切分音系学
Supra-segmentalphonologyisconcernedwiththephonologicalfeaturesthatextendmoreonesegment.
(1)pitch&tone音高和声调
(2)loudness&stress响度和重音
(3)tempo&rhythm速度和节奏
(4)pause&juncture停顿和音渡
Chapter4Morphology
Morphology形态学:
thestudyofthestructureandtheformationofwordsinlanguage
1.Inflectional&derivationalmorphology屈折形态学和派生形态学
inflection:
theformalchangesofawordorpartofawordinrelationtoitsdifferinggrammaticalmeanings
derivation:
theformationofanewwordbyaddinganelementsuchasanaffix
2.Morpheme,morph&allomorph语素、语素形态和语素变体
Morphemeisaminimalunitwhichisformallycomposedofmeaninglesslinguisticsymbolsatthelowerlevelofthelanguageandwhichisusedinavarietyofcontextswithaconstantmeaning.
Morphisaphonologicalformrepresentingtherelevantmorphemeinspeechorinwriting.Morphemeisabstractinnatureandisrealizedthroughitsmorph.
Allomorphisamorphologicalvariantofmorpheme(i.e.onememberofthegroupofmorphsthatrealizethemorphemeinspeakingorwriting).
3.Freemorpheme&boundmorpheme
自由语素和粘着语素
Freemorphemeisamorphemethatcanstandaloneasaword.Boundmorphemeisamorphemethatcannotstandaloneasaword.
4.Inflectionalmorpheme&derivationalmorpheme屈折语素和派生语素
5.Lexicalmorpheme&grammaticalmorpheme词汇语素和语法语素
Chapter5Syntax
Syntax句法学studiesthewayswordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage.
1.Traditionalbottom-upapproach自下而上的传统方法是从词到句进行研究
2.Constituencytop-downapproach自上而下的成分分析法是从句到词,通常以treediagram(树形图)的方式研究句子
3.ConstituentStructureRulesvsLexicalInsertionRules成分结构规则和语汇插入规则
threeconstituentstructures:
Rule
(1)SàNP+VP;
Rule
(2)NPà{PN,Art+N};
Rule(3)VPà{V+Adv,V}
lexicalinsertionrule:
onethatgovernsselectingfromthelexiconalexicalitemandinsertingitintoaterminalnodeofaconstituentstructureasitsdaughternode
4.Selectionrestrictions选择限制
Syntacticalselectionrestriction句法选择限制;Semanticselectionrestriction语义选择限制
5.Transformationalgenerativegrammar
proposedbyNoamChomskyconsistsofthreecomponents:
thesyntacticcomponent,thephonologicalcomponentandthesemanticcomponent.
ThesyntacticcomponentinChomsky’smodelcomprisesofasetphrasestructurerulesandasetoftransformationalrules.Ourdiscussionisfocusedonthreetypesoftransformations:
passivetransformation被动转换[NP1–Aux–V–NP2 ®NP2–Aux+Pass–V–by+NP1:
(1)Theboyatethecake.
(2)Thecakewaseatenbytheboy.]
interrogativetransformation疑问转换
[NP–Aux1–X ®Aux1–NP–X:
(1)Theboyhaseatenthecake.
(2)Hastheboyeatenthecake?
]
negativetransformation否定转换[X–Aux1–Y®X–Aux1+Neg–Y:
(1)Theboywilleatthecake.
(2)Theboywillnoteatthecake./NP–Tense–MV–X®Tense+Do–NP–MV–X:
(3)Theboyeatsthecake.(4)Theboydoesnoteatthecake.]
Chapter6Semantics
Semantics语义学isthescienceofmeaning.
1.Averyoldviewaboutmeaninghasbeenknownasnamingtheory命名论.
theconceptualview:
themeaningofawordistheconceptthatispermanentlyassociatedwiththewordinourminds
Aprototypeisanoriginaltype,formorinstancethatservesasmodelonwhichlaterstagesarebasedorjudged.
2.Sense&Reference意义和所指
sense:
themeaningthatrelateslinguisticformswithwhatisinthenon-linguisticworld;
reference:
themeaningthatliesintherelationorcontrastsamonglinguisticformsthemselves
Relationbetweensenseandreference
(1)Formsdifferentinsensemayhavethesamereference. (e.g. mynewcar; thecarthatIhavejustbought; Thisisthecar.)
(2)Formsidenticalinsensemayhavedifferentreferences. (e.g.Thisismycar. Thisismycar.)
(3)Formsthathaveasensebuthavenoreference. (e.g.ThepresentKingofFranceisbald.)
3.Lexicalmeaning词汇意义
Lexicalmeaningreferstothesenseinwhichawordisused.
(1)Synonymy同义关系
Synonymyreferstothesamenessinmeaningbetweentwoormorewords.
–用在不同地域方言中的同义词(fall–autumn)
–语体不同的同义词(ain't–’mnot)
–应用范围不同的同义词(employer–boss)
–用于不同搭配的同义词(strongcoffee–powerfulmachine)
(2)Polysemy多义关系
Polysemyreferstothelinguisticphenomenonthatawordmaybeusedinanumberofdifferentsensesorissaidtohavearangeofdifferentmeanings.(e.g.base)
(3)Homonymy同音/同形异义关系Homonymyreferstothesenserelationthattwoormorewordshavethesameform,bothorthographicandphonologic,butdifferinmeaning(e.g.bear).
(4)Antonymy反义关系
Antonymyreferstotheoppositenessofmeaning.
-gradable可分等级的反义词(more/less)
-complementary互补性反义词(man/woman)
-relationallyopposite关系反义词(husband/wife)
(5)Hyponymy上下义关系
Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneralwordandamorespecificword.(e.g.flower-rose)
Chapter7Pragmatics,discourseanalysisandtextlinguistics
Pragmatics语用学isthestudyofthemeaningwhichisnotincludedinsemanticsandwhoseinterpretationisdependentonitssocialcontexts.
Discourseanalysis话语分析isthestudyofspeech,focusings
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