北科大语言学内部教学教案6考研必备.docx
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北科大语言学内部教学教案6考研必备.docx
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北科大语言学内部教学教案6考研必备
Lecture6Syntax
SYNTAXisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.Ittriestoanswertwoquestions:
1)Whatwordscanoccurtogether;
2)Inwhatorderthewordsareputtogether.
Inthediscussionofsyntax,we’llfollowthearrangementofmaterialsinEdition1andEdition3.Thatistosay,we’lltalkaboutsyntaxfromthefollowingperspectives:
6.1Syntacticrelations句法关系
6.2Constructionandconstituents结构与成分
6.3Syntacticfunctions句法功能
6.4Categories范畴
6.5Phrase,clauseandsentence
6.6Theextensionofsentence
6.7Syntaxbeyondthesentence
InEdition2,thediscussionofsyntaxismadebyaddressingtheapproachestakenbydifferentschools.Thisoverlapsagreatdealwithwhatwe’retocoverinChapter12“Schoolsandtheoriesofmodernlinguistics”.
6.1Syntacticrelations句法关系
Syntacticrelationscanbeanalysedintothreekinds,namely,positionalrelations(位置关系),relationsofsubstitutability(替换关系),andrelationsofco-occurrence(同现关系).
6.1.1Positionalrelations
Let’slookatthissimpleEnglishsentence:
Theboykickedtheball.
Howdowemakeclearthegrammaticalrolesofthedifferentphrasesinthissentence?
Therearetwonounphraseshere:
thefirstfunctionsasthesubject,thesecondtheobject.Buthowdoweindicate“theboy”isthesubjectwhile“theball”istheobject?
Onewayisbyaddingsuffixesthatindicatethecase:
thesubjectshouldbeinnominativecasewhiletheobjectaccusativecase.However,inmodernEnglish,thereisnosuchdistinctionofcasewithcommonnouns.Thenwehaveonlyonewaytoindicatethegrammaticalrolesofthetwophrases:
bywordorder,orpositionalrelationship.
Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall. Forexample,ifthewordorderofthissentenceisviolated,we’relikelytogetsentenceslikethese:
*Boytheballkickedthe.(violatingsyntacticrules,ungrammatical)
*Theballkickedtheboy.(violatingsemanticrules,nonsensical)
Therearesentencesinwhichwhenwechangethewordorder,wegetgrammaticalsentencesthatmakesense,butthemeaningmaybejusttheopposite.
Theboylaughedatthegirl.
Thegirllaughedattheboy.
PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSYNTAGMATICRELATIONS(组合关系).ThiswasfirstobservedbyF.deSaussure(1857-1913).TheyarealsocalledHORIZONTALRELATIONSorsimplyCHAINRELATIONS(链状关系).Sofaraswordorderorpositionalrelationisconcerned,theyareSVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.EnglishbelongstoSVOtype,thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder.
6.1.2Relationofsubstitutability
Firstly,theRELATIONOFSUBSTITUTABILITYreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.
Forexample,ifIwantyoufillintheblankofthefollowingsentence:
The________smiles.
Youknow,bygrammaticalknowledgeyouhavelearnedthat,firsthereweneedananimatenoun,thenitshouldbeasemanticconstituentofhuman;finally,itshouldbeasingularnoun.Therefore,wecanfillinhereseveraldifferentwords:
man,woman,boy,girl,student,teacher,etc.Thesewordsareintherelationofsubstitutability.
Secondly,thisrelationshipdoesnotrefertoindividualwordsonly.Itreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichtogethermaybesubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.
In(a)onecanmakeachoicefromthenominalgroups,whereasin(b)onecanmakeachoicefromtheadverbialgroups.ThisiswhatSaussurecalledASSOCIATIVErelations(联想关系),orinHjemslev'sterm,PARADIGMATICrelations(聚合关系).Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVERTICALrelationsorCHOICErelations(选择关系)
6.1.3Relationofco-occurrence
BytherelationofCO-OCCURENCEonemeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.
Thusrelationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.
6.2Constructionandconstituents
Let’slookatthesentence“Theboykickedtheball”again.Inthissentence,therearefivewords.Butthesefivewordsarenotdirectlyrelatedtothesentence.Imean,thesentenceisnotformeddirectlybythewords.Orinanotherword,therelationshipbetweeneachadjacentwordisnotexactlythesame.Forexample,therelationshipbetween“the”and“boy”ismuchcloserthanthatbetween“boy”and“kicked”.Thatistosay,“the”and“boy”firstformawordgrouporphrase,andsimilarly,“the”and“ball”formanotherwordgroup,thentheverb“kicked”andthenounphrase“theball”togetherformaverbalphrase.Finallythisverbalphrasetogetherwiththenounphrase“theboy”formsthesentence.Inthissense,wesayasentencenotonlyhasalinearstructure,thatis,itconsistsofindividualwordsonafteranotherinaline;italsohasahierarchicalstructure–it’smadeupoflayersofwordgroups.Therelationshipbetweenasentenceanditscomponentelementsisusuallyreferredtoastherelationshipbetweenagrammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents.
Hereaconstructioncanbeeitherasentencelike“Theboykickedtheball”oraphraselike“theboy”.Constituentreferstoanylinguisticunitthatispartofalargerlinguisticunit.
6.2.1ImmediateConstituentanalysis直接成分分析
OnewaythatisoftenusedinanalyzingagrammaticalconstructioniscalledImmediateConstituentanalysis,orICanalysis.ThisideawasfirstputforwardbyLeonardBloomfield.Accordingtohim,anyconstructioncanbecutintoimmediateconstituents–wordgroups,whichcanbefurthercutintoitsownimmediateconstituents–words.Finally,wereachtheultimateconstituent(最终成分)–morphemes.Usuallywestopatthelevelofwords.
Intheexamplewehavediscussed,“Theboykickedtheball”,andthetwophrase,“theboy”and“kickedtheball”,eachofthemisaconstituent.Butthetwosmallerconstituentcanjointogethertoformthelargerone.Inthiscase,thetwophrasesaresaidtobetheimmediateconstituentofthehierarchicallylargerconstituent,thesentence“Theboykickedtheball”.Therelationshipcanbeillustratedthisway.
Theboykickedtheball
ThistreecontainsthreeNodes.Thetop-mostnode,A,isthemotherofthetwolowernodes(节),BandC.BandCareDaughtersofthesamemother,andsowerefertothemasSisternodes.ThesimpletreeintheaboverepresentsaconstituentofcategoryAwhichiscomposedoftwoparts,oneofcategoryBandtheotherofcategoryC,occurringinthatorder.
Theimmediateconstituentsthemselvescanbeconstructionsofspecifictypes,forinstance,thenominalphrase“Theboy”canbefurtheranalysedinto“The(Determiner)+boy(Noun)”.Thus,“Theboy”istheconstructionofanominalphrase,whereas“The”and“boy”areitsconstituents.Oftentheimmediateconstituentsarepresentedinatreediagram.Herewe’retogiveadetailedanalysisoftheconstituentsinthissentencebysuchatree.
Theboykickedtheball
Anotherwaytopresenttheimmediateconstituentsisbybracketing,whichisusedlesscommonbutmoreeconomical.
(((The)(boy))((ate)((the)(apple))))
Herethequestionis:
Howdowedecidewherethecutshouldbe?
Whyshouldwecutbetween“theboy”and“kickedtheball”insteadofbetween“theboykicked”and“theball”?
Theprincipleissubstitutability.Thatis,whetherit’spossibletoreplacethesequenceofwordsintheconstituentbyasingleword.Hereinthissentence,wecanfirstreplace“theboy”by“he”,“theball”by“it”,andthesentenceisshortenedto“Hekickedit”.Thenwecanreplace“kickedit”by“kicked”.Thatistosay,“kickedit”and“kicked”areinparadigmaticrelation.Butwecannotuseonesinglewordtoreplace“hekicked”.
Thisimmediateconstituentanalysismethodhasabigadvantage:
itcanhelptoclearambiguity.Forexample,thephrase“leavethebookontheshelf”isambiguous.Ithasatleasttwomeanings:
putthebookontheshelf,ordon’tmovethebookontheshelf.ByICanalysis,theambiguitycanberevealedclearly.First,weneedtodecideinthesetwomeanings,wherewecutthephraseintoitsimmediateconstituent.Whenitmeans“putthebookontheshelf”,thephrasecanbereplacedby“putitthere”whilewhenitmeans“don’tmovethebookontheshelf”,itcanbereplacedby“don’tmoveit”.Thereforethephrasecanbeanalyzedinthefollowingtwoways:
leavethebookontheshelf
leavethebookontheshelf
Sometimesweneedalabeledtreediagramtorevealthisambiguity.Thatis,welabelthenodesasnoun,verb,determiner,orNP,VP,etc.Forexample,inrevealingtheambiguityinthesentence“Ishereallythatkind?
”,wemaydoitthisway:
Ishereallythatkind?
Ishereallythatkind?
DetNAd.Adj.
NPAP
ButthisICanalysisalsohasitsproblems.Forexample,itcan’tshowambiguityinawordgrouplike“theloveofGod”and“theshootingofhunters”.ThisanalysiscannotmakeclearwhetherGodisthesubjectorobjectof“love”,orwhether“hunters”isthesubjectorobjectof“shooting”.
6.2.2EndocentricandExocentricconstructions
Wea
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