记忆容量选择的控制和价值取向在正常儿童与多动症儿童间的差异毕业论文外文翻译.docx
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记忆容量选择的控制和价值取向在正常儿童与多动症儿童间的差异毕业论文外文翻译.docx
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记忆容量选择的控制和价值取向在正常儿童与多动症儿童间的差异毕业论文外文翻译
MemoryCapacity,SelectiveControl,andValue-DirectedRememberinginChildrenWithandWithoutAttention-Deficit/HyperactivityDisorder(ADHD)
AlanD.Castel,SteveS.Lee,and
KathrynL.Humphreys
UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles
AmyN.Moore
PennsylvaniaStateUniversity
Objective:
Theabilitytoselectwhatisimportanttoremember,toattendtothisinformation,andtorecallhigh-valueitemsleadstotheefficientuseofmemory.Thepresentstudyexaminedhowchildrenwithandwithoutattention-deficit/hyperactivitydisorder(ADHD)performedonanincentive-basedselectivitytaskinwhichto-be-remembereditemswereworthdifferentpointvalues.Method:
Participantswere6-9yearoldchildrenwithADHD(n=57)andwithoutADHD(n=59).Usingaselectivitytask,participantsstudiedwordspairedwithpointvaluesandwereaskedtomaximizetheirscore,whichwastheoverallvalueoftheitemstheyrecalled.Thistaskallowsformeasuresofmemorycapacityandtheabilitytoselectivelyrememberhigh-valueitems.Results:
Althoughtherewerenosignificantbetween-groupsdifferencesinthenumberofwordsrecalled(memorycapacity),childrenwithADHDwerelessselectivethanchildreninthecontrolgroupintermsofthevalueoftheitemstheyrecalled(controlofmemory).Allchildrenrecalledmorehigh-valueitemsthanlow-valueitemsandshowedsomelearningwithtaskexperience,butchildrenwithADHDCombinedtypedidnotefficientlymaximizememoryperformance(asmeasuredbyaselectivityindex)relativetochildrenwithADHDInattentivetypeandhealthycontrols,whodidnotdiffersignificantlyfromoneanother.Conclusions:
ChildrenwithADHDCombinedtypeexhibitimpairmentsinthestrategicandefficientencodingandrecallofhigh-valueitems.ThefindingshaveimplicationsfortheoriesofmemorydysfunctioninchildhoodADHDandthekeyroleofmetacognition,cognitivecontrol,andvalue-directedrememberingwhenconsideringthestrategicuseofmemory.
Keywords:
ADHD,memory,cognitivecontrol,metamemory,encodingstrategies
Attention-deficit/hyperactivitydisorder(ADHD)ischaracterizedbyanearlyonsetofdevelopmentallyaberrantandimpairinglevelsofinattentionand/orhyperactivity-impulsivity(AmericanPsychiatricAssociation[APA],2000).Inadditiontoitsconcurrentandprospectiveassociationwithdisruptedsocial/familyrelationships,substandardacademicachievement,andelevatedcomorbidity(Barkley,Fischer,Edelbrock,&Smallish,1990;Barkley,Fischer,Smallish,&Fletcher,2002;Lee,Lahey,Owens,&Hinshaw,2008;Owens,Hinshaw,Lee,&Lahey,2009),ADHDisalsoassociatedwithneuropsychologicaldeficitsacrossdomainssuchascognitiveflexibility,problemsolving,andworkingmemory(Willcutt,Doyle,Nigg,Faraone,&Pennington,2005).Workingmemory(WM)involvestheactivemaintenanceandmanipulationofinformation,andisgovernedbyexecutivecontrolprocesses(Baddeley,1992,2007).Arecentmeta-analysisshowedthatchildrenwithADHDhavespecific,robustdeficitsinWM,whicharemorepronouncedinspatialWMtasksthaninverbalWMtasks(Martinussen,Hayden,Hogg-Johnson,&Tannock,2005).Furthermore,thereisevidencethatneuropsychologicaldeficits,includingproblemswithWM,partiallymediatethepersistenceofADHDovertime,aswellasthedegreeoffunctionalimpairmentassociatedwithADHD(Halperin,Trampush,Miller,Mark,&Newcorn,2008).&NewcornForexample,ADHDisassociatedwithineffectiveuseofmemorystrategiesand/orafailuretosustaineffortfulprocessingovertime(O’Neill&Douglas,1996).Thismayalsoberelatedtoimpairmentsingoalmaintenance(Kane&Engle,2003).Agreatdealofresearchshowsthatinhibitorycontrolchangesdramaticallyacrossthelifespan(Bedard,Nichols,Barbosa,Schachar,Logan,&Tannock,2002;Zelazo,Craik,&Booth,2004),andthatchildrenwithADHDhavespecificdeficitsininhibitorycontrol(Barkley,1997).However,mostresearchonWM,inhibition,andexecutivecontrolhasusedtasksthatdonotprovidestrongincentivestoselectivelyfocusonandrememberimportantorhigh–valueinformation,atthecostoflower-valueinformation.TypicallyWMtasksdonotdiscriminateitemsbytheirrelativeimportanceandWMperformanceisoperationalizedbyhowmanyitemsareretained.ThepresentstudyexpandsontheliteratureonWMbyexamininghowchildrenwithandwithoutADHDstrategicallyfocusonandretainhigh-valueinformationinWMandhowthisabilitychangeswithtaskexperience.
The“selectivitytask,”arelativelynovelmethodforexamininghowpeoplecanselectivelyencodeandmaintainhigh-valueinformation,differsfromtraditionalmeasuresofWMinthatitinvestigateshowoneselectivelyencodesinformationusingstrategiccontrol,andhasnowbeenusedinseveralstudieswithvariouspopulations(seeCastel,Benjamin,Craik,&Watkins,2002;Castel,Farb,&Craik,2007;Hanten,Li,Chapman,Swank,Gamino,Roberson,&Levin,2007;Watkins&Bloom,1999).Inthepresentstudy,weusedamodifiedformofthisparadigm,inwhichwordswithdifferentvalues(e.g.,points)weretoberememberedbytheparticipant.Thisprocedureallowsonetoexaminetheextenttowhichpeopleusevalue-basedinformationtoguidetheefficientuseofmemory(e.g.,byintentionallyrecallinghighervalueditems).Thepointvalueassignedtoeachitemduringencodingindicateshowimportanteachitemistoremember.ThistaskdiffersfromtraditionalmeasuresofepisodicmemoryorcommontestsofWMspanasitexaminesthestrategiccontrolofencodinghigh-valueinformation.Whereasthisvalue-directedrememberingapproachmaysharesomeresourceswithWMfunction,theselectivitytaskspecificallyallowsforanexaminationofthestrategicdeploymentofmemorycapacity,andtheawarenessoflimitedmemorycapacity(whichcanbeconceptualizedasaformofmetamemory).
Intheselectivityparadigm,participantsarepresentedwithlistsofwords,witheachwordinthelisthavingadistinctvaluerangingfrom1to12points.Participantsareinstructedtorememberasmanywordsaspossible,withthegoalofmaximizingtheirscore,whichisthesumofthepointvaluesofeachrecalledword.Afterrecall,participantsaretoldtheirscore,andthenaregivenanewlist,withinstructionstomaximizetheirscore.Usingaselectivityindex(SI)developedbyWatkinsandBloom(1999;seealsoHantenetal.,2007),weexaminedhowselectivitychangedwithtaskexperience.ThisSIisbasedontheparticipant’sscore(thesumofthepointsthatwerepairedwiththerecalleditems,orthe“value”oftherecalleditems),relativetochanceandidealperformance.Theequationaccountsfortheparticipant’sscorerelativetoanidealscorethatrepresentsrecallofonlythemosthighlyvaluedwordsatthatlevelofrecall.Forexample,ifagivenparticipantrememberedfourwords,andthepointsassociatedwiththewordswere12,10,9,and8,thatparticipants’SIwouldbeconsideredquitehigh.Theidealscoreforfourwordsis12+11+10+9=42,whereasthescoreoftheparticipantinquestionis39.Achancescoreisbasedoncalculatingtheaveragevalueofthepoints(usinga12-wordlist,withnumbersrangingfrom1to12,theaveragewouldbe6.5)andmultiplyingthatvaluebythenumberofwordsrecalled(inthiscase,4).Thus,theSIinthiscaseis(39–26)/(42–26)=.81.Itisimportanttonotethattheindexcanrangefrom1to_1.PerfectselectivitywouldresultinanSIof1.0,whereasselectionofwordswiththelowestvalues(e.g.,recallingthe1-,2-,and3-pointwords)wouldresultinanSIof_1.0.Asetofwordsrecalledwithnoregardtotheirpointvalues(i.e.,showingnoselectivity)wouldresultinaselectivityindexcloseto0.Thus,theSIprovidesaselectivity,orefficiency,indexbasedonone’sactualscore,relativetoanidealscore,takingintoaccountthenumberofwordsrecalled.
Previousworkusingtheselectivitytaskhasshownthatalthoughhealthyolderadultsrecalledfewerwordsthanyoungeradults,olderadultsenhancedtheirselectivityscore(tolevelssimilartoyoungeradults)byrecallinghigh-valueitems(Casteletal.,2002).Inaddition,Castelandcolleagues(2009)haveshownthat,despiterecallingfeweritemsrelativetoyoungeradults,healthyolderadultsbegintodevelopastrategy(afterseverallists)offocusingonthehighervalueitemstomaximizetheirscore.ThisabilitytobeselectivewasfoundtobesomewhatimpairedinolderadultswithearlysignsofAlzheimer’sdisease(Castel,Balota,&McCabe,2009).Inaddition,Hantenandcolleaguesfounddeficitsamongchildrenwithbraininjuryandautism(Hantenetal.,2002,2004).Ofsignificancetothecurrentstudy,Hantenandcolleagues(2007)observedthatthenumberofwordsrecalledandselectivitywereindependentinadiversesampleofchildren,suggestingthatperhapsdifferentneuralsystemsmaycontributetomemorycapacityandtheselectivecontrolofattentiontohigh-valueitems.Thus,theSIprovidesausefulmeasureofmemoryefficiencythatgoesbeyondsimplymeasuringtheoverallquantityofrecalleditems(cf.Koriat&Goldsmith,1996).Thesefindingssuggestanimportantdistinctionbetweenmemoryquantityandefficiencyacrossthelifespan.
Theselectivitytaskcanalsoprovideameasureofhowpeoplelearnwhichitemstoattendtoacrosslists(i.e.,withtaskexperience).Inthistask,participantsarepresentedwithseverallistsortrials,andaftereachlistaregivenfeedbackabouttheirscore,whichisthesumofthepointvaluesofthewordsthattheyrecalled.Toachieveanoptimalscore(viaefficientuseofmemory),participantsneedtofocusonorattendtothehigh-valueitemsandrecallthemontheimm
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- 记忆容量 选择的控制 和价值取向 在正常儿童与多动症儿童间的差异 毕业论文外文翻译 记忆 容量 选择 控制 价值 取向 正常 儿童 多动症 差异 毕业论文 外文 翻译
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