参考范文讨论稿.docx
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参考范文讨论稿.docx
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参考范文讨论稿
参考范文(讨论稿)
TheEnlightenmentandItsHeritagetoAmericanCulture↘(timesnewRoman三号)
Introduction↘(timesnewRoman小三号)
Inthelonghistoryofhumancivilization,itisreallyamiraclethatAmerica,afairlyyoungnation,hasevolvedfromacolonyofBritaintoasuperpowertodayinmerelymorethantwohundredyears.LargequantitiesofimmigrantsaredrawntoAmericaeveryyearinhopeofrealizingtheir“Americandream”,amongtheessenceofwhicharethefamiliarvaluessuchasliberty,democracyandjustice,etc...Meanwhile,thespiritofAmericanculturespreadallovertheworldareexertinggreatinfluenceontheestablishedcultureandcustomsofothernations,whichiswelljustifiedbytheterm“Americanization”.TounderstandwhyAmericanculturehasbecomesoinfluentialinthecurrenttimes,itisimportanttogobackintimetoexploreitsroots.TheEnlightenmentinthe18thcenturywithitsflourishingnaturalscienceandbrilliantnewideasabouthumanrightsmayshedsomelightonthequestion.↘(timesnewRoman小四号)
1TheAgeofReason↘(timesnewRoman小三号)
1.1PoliticalandEconomicBackground↘(timesnewRoman四号)
Althoughtheintellectualmovementcalled“TheEnlightenment”isusuallyassociatedwiththe18thcentury,itssourceinfactcanbetracedmuchfurther.Europeofthe17thcenturywasdominatedbydogmaandfanaticism.Workinghandinhand,bothchurchandstaterepressedanyvoicesagainstclericalismorfeudalprivilege.Slaverywaswidelypracticed,especiallyinthecolonialplantationsofthewesternhemisphere,anditscrueltieswerefrequentlydefendedbyleadingreligiousfigures.Thedespotismofmonarchsexercisinggreatpowersthananymedievalkingwassupportedbythedoctrineofthe“divinerightofkings,”andscripturequotedtoshowthatrevolutionwasdetestedbyGod.Aswitch-huntsprevailedinsocietyandorganizationstryingtochallengethetwinauthoritiesofchurchandstatewerebanned,theconflictbetweenrulersandpeoplesharpened.Religiousoppressionbeingthemainstream,tradeandcommercestillgaineddevelopment.WiththewealthbroughtbackfromAsiaandtheAmericas,anewclassofmerchantsgraduallyroseintoprominenceinthe18thcentury,aswerelatercalledthebourgeoisclass.Greatfortunesweremade ineverytownandthewaveofprosperitybroughtagreaterdegreeofself-confidencetothem.Theybecameincreasinglypowerfulinpoliticsaswellasineconomy.Thesemerchantshadtheirownideasaboutthelifetheydesiredandtheworldinwhichtheywantedtolive.Theybelievedthattheirearningswerethefruitsoftheirownhardwork,unliketheinheritedwealthofthearistocracy.Theywerealsoawarethatthearistocracylivingontheirpaidtaxeswhilecontributingnothingofvaluetosocietywasreluctanttoshareanypowerwiththem,therealcreatorofnationalwealth.TheyweredissatisfiedwiththefeudallordsandlongedformorepowerfromtheKingsothattheycouldhavefreedevelopment.
1.2IntellectualSetting
Atthesametime,naturalsciencemadeacceleratedprogressinthelate17thandthe18thcentury.ItrenderedanideologicalweapontothevanguardsoftheEnlightenment.Manyphilosophersweretryingtoseektruthandreasonfromthenewly-emergingnaturalscience.ReneDescartes,famousforhisanalyticalgeometry,believedthattheonlywaytoknowtheworldandacquireknowledgeismathematicalreasoning;Baconproposedaninductionmethodfromparticulartogeneralandfromspecifictoabstract;Newton’sdiscoveryofcosmiclawandgravitationsupportedtheCopernicansystemandopenedenormousnewfieldsinastronomyandphysics.Besides,notableachievementswerescoredinbotany,geographyandmedicine,whichmademoreandmorepeopleconvincedofhuman’sabilitytoconquerthenatureandoftheperfectibilityandprogressofhumansociety.GreatlyinfluencedbyNewton’scosmiclawapplicabletotheminutestobjectaswellastotheuniverseasawhole,thephilosophershadmuchfaithintheideathatthereexistnotonlynaturallawsregulatingphysicalworldbutalsonaturallawsgoverninghumansociety.InFranceofthe18thcentury,thereadingpubliccameintoexistencebecauseofincreasingliteracyandpeoplebegantoridthemselvesofthebansplacedbychurchandstate,questiontheinequalityofsociety,expresstheirideasthrougheverypossiblechannel,andlearntoanalyzeproblemsbyreason.Thisisthebackgroundofthe18thEurope.Europeanswerechanging,butEurope’sinstitutionswerenotkeepingpacewiththatchange.Eventually,theimpulseofnaturalsciencealchemizedintotheEnlightenment.Thisisoneofthoserarehistoricalmovementswhichineffectnameditself.Certainthinkersandwriters,primarilyinLondonandParis,believedthattheyweremoreenlightenedthantheircompatriotsandsetouttoenlightenthem.
1.3TheEssenceoftheEnlightenmentandthePhilosophes
Originatinginthe17thcenturyBritain,theEnlightenmentwasprimarilyaFrenchmovementbecauseatthattimeFrenchculturedominatedEuropeandbecauseitscorevalueswereputforthintheenvironmentofParisiansalons.Althoughitsbackbonewasthemiddleclass,itsmainpurposewasformaningeneral,forhumanity.ItwasafterthePeaceofUtrecht(1713)thattheEnlightenmentwasinalargedegreeaFrenchphenomenon.Itsleadingproponentswereknownasthephilosophes,atermwhichcannotbeliterallyinterpretedas“philosophers”.Thephilosophesweremostlywritersandintellectualswhosawthroughsocialmaladiesandsoughtreformsundertheguidanceoftheprinciplesofreason.Therefore,theEnlightenmenthadanothername“theAgeofReason”(calledbyThomasPaine).Byreasonitsignifiedman’sthoughtandjudgmentandbyreasongreatemphasiswasattachedtothenotionthateverythingshouldbejudgedbysense,ratherthanbythewillofGod,tosecurethenaturalrightsofhumans.
Withitsappealtorationalismandperfectibilityandprogress,theEnlightenmentwaslabeledasthesecondmind-emancipatingmovementledbyEuropeanbourgeoisieagainstdespotism,clericalismandfeudalprivilege.Theword“enlightenment”meansbrightandwisdominFrench.Thephilosophescalledforthesunlightofreasontodispelthedarknessofrealityandtousherindemocracy,freedomandequality.Theyturnedrationalismtoabannerofanti-feudalism.
ThemainfiguresoftheEnlightenmentarefairlywellknown:
Descartes,IssacNewton,Pascal,Bayle,Montesquieu,Voltaire,Diderot,Rousseau,HobbesandLocke.Amongthem,HobbesandLockearetheearliestphilosophesinBritainandtheirpoliticalthoughthasmadetremendousimpactontheshapingofAmericanculture.
AttherightbeginningoftheEnlightenment,BritishthinkerHobbesclaimedthatthestateofnatureknowsnogovernment,andgovernmentisinstitutedbypeople.Beforethebirthofgovernment,meninastateofnaturewereinawarofallagainstallinwhichlifeandsubsistencewerehardlyprotected.Tofindawayoutofthisdesperatestate,menwerewillingtomakeasocialcontractandtransfertheirrightstoarulerorrulerstoestablishthestatetokeeppeaceandorder.Thusgovernmentcameintobeingandmenenteredastateofsociety.Whilesovereigntywasconferredbypeople,peoplemustabsolutelyobeythemonarch.SuchphilosophyofsocialcontractposedathreattotheDivineRightofKingtheory,which,asitwascalled,assertedthatGodchosesomepeopletoruleonearthinhiswillandwhateverthemonarchdecidedwasthewillofGod.However,farfrombeingananti-authoritarian,Hobbesregardedabsolutemonarchyasthebestgovernmentpattern.Asamatteroffact,hejustconvertedthedivinerightofKingtothatgivenbypeopleundersocialcontract.
AnotherimportantpersonwhocarriedforwardandfurtherdevelopedthetheoryofthesocialcontractwasJohnLocke.ButcontradictingHobbes,Lockemaintainedthattheoriginalstateofnaturewashappyandcharacterizedbyreasonandtolerance;therelationshipbetweenhumanswaspeacefulandkind,quiteotherthanthedisorderedstateasdescribedbyHobbes;allhumanbeingswereequalandfreetopursue“life,health,libertyandpossessions”.InhisTheSecondTreatiseofGovernment,Lockewrote:
Inastateofnatureallmenarefreeandequal.
Inastateofnaturenomanoughttoharmanother.
Manacquirespropertythroughtheproductsofhislabor.
Inordertoremedyinconveniencesresultingfromastateofnature…menenterintocontract,therebycreatingacivilsociety…todefendthenaturalrightsofmen.
Ifagovernmentviolatesthesocialcontract…itrebelsagainstthepeople,andthepeoplehavetherighttodissolvethegovernment.
Thissetforththedoctrinethatthecontractorconsentisthegroundofgovernmentandfixesitslimits.Behindthedoctrinelaidtheideaoftheindependenceoftheindividualperson.AgainstHobbes,Lockearguedthattherulerisonlytheunilateralpartytothecontractsothattheruler’srightsarerestrainedaswellasitsobligationsboundbythecontract.Men’srighttolife,libertyandpropertyareautomaticallyearnedbybeingborn.Andtheruler’spowersaregiventohimasatrustforthegoodofitspeople.Ifthetrustisbrokenhispowerscanbetakenaway.So,forLocke,alegitimatecivilgovernmentisinstitutedbytheexplicitconsentofthosegoverned.Thosewhomakethisagreementtransfersomeoftheirrightstothecentralgovernment,whileretainingtheothers.Hebelievedthatamonarchywithanassemblytoholdthemonarchtohistrustwasanidealpoliticalarrangement.Fromhere,itisquitecleartoseethatLockeisanadvocateofconstitutionalmonarchy.AndhisradicalnaturalrighttheoriesinfluencedtheideologiesoftheAmericanandFrenchrevolutions.Lock
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