居住区景观外文翻译.docx

居住区景观外文翻译.docx

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居住区景观外文翻译

INVENTORYANDANALYSISOFTHEBIOPHYSICALENVIRONMENT

Afteracommunityhasidentifiedthechallengesandopportunitiesthatitfacesandhasreachedsomeconsensusconcerningitsgoalstoaddressthoseissues,thenitisnecessarytocollecttheinformationneededtoachievecommunitygoals.Aninventoryisasystematicacquisitionofinformationneededtodescribeandcharacterizeaplace.Inventoriesprovidethebasisforecologicalanalysis.InformationaboutnaturehasoftenbeenusedinanADHOCmannerinAmericanplanning.Onlythatinformationneededtoachieveaspecificgoaliscollected—sotoooftenitisdisconnectedinformation.

Thebasicpremiseofecologyisthateverythingisconnectedtoeverythingelse.Asaresult,theecologicalapproachdiffersfrommoretraditionalmethods.Forexample,afloodfrequentlypromptscommunityinterestsinplanning,especiallywhenlossoflifeandpropertydamagehasoccurred.Withaconventionalplanningresponse,onlytheflood-proneareasareidentified.Also,thisapproachfocusesprimarilyonthenegativeconsequencesofflooding.Sincefloodingisrecognizedbyacommunityasahazardtohumansafety,theresponsibleelectedofficialsadoptagoaltopreventbuildingsinflood-proneareas.Theseareasaremappedandbuildingrestricted.Thegoalisone-dimensional.Incontrast,inecologicalplanningthecomplexmatrixoffactorsrelatedtofloodingwouldbeconsidered.Floodingistheresultoftheinteraction

ofseveralnaturalphenomena—rainfall,bedrock,terrain,soils,temperature,andvegetation,forinstance.Sinceecologicalplanningrestsonanunderstandingofrelationships,broader-rangeinformationaboutthebiophysicalprocessesofanareamustbecollectedandanalyzed.Inaddition,anecologicalviewacknowledgesthebenefitsofnaturalfloodingevents,suchasthedepositionoffertilesoils.Moreover,thesequenceofcollectingthisinformationbecomesimportant.

Older,larger-scalecomponentsofthelandscapeexertastronginfluenceonmoreephemeralelements.Regionalclimateandgeologyhelptodeterminesoilsandwaterdrainagesystemsofanarea,whichinturnaffectwhatvegetationandanimalswillinhabitaplace.Thechallengefortheecologicalplanneristothinkgeologicallyinbothspaceandtime.Onemustthinkbig,becauseitislikelythatthegeologiceventsthatoccurinaspecificplanningareaorjurisdictionareprobablydrivenbyplatetectonicinteractionsthousandsofkilometersaway,andclimaticeventsbyprocessesworkingonaglobalscale.Thetemporalscaleisalsoquitelarge,withthehumantimescalesomuchshorterthanthatofthegeologiceventswithinaplanningarea.Asaresult,inecologicalplanningonebeginstoinventorytheolderelementsandproceedstotheyoungest.Thesystematicsurveyofinformationshouldleadtoanunderstandingofprocesses,notmerelythecollectionofData.

Whenconductingsuchaninventory,itisusefultoidentifyboundariessothatthevariousbiophysicalelementscanbecomparedwitheachotheroverthesamespatialareaandatthesamescale.Oftensuchaplanningareaisdefinedbylegislativegoals,as,forinstance,withtheNewJerseyPinelands.Ideally,severallevelsofinventoriesfromregionaltolocalareundertaken.AsRichardFormanhasadvised,weshould“thinkglobally,planregionally,andactlocally”（1995,435）.Ahierarchyoflevelsisidentifiedsothattheplanningareamaybeunderstoodaspartofalargersystemandspecificplacesmaybeseenaspartsofawhole.Thelargeriverdrainagebasinattheregionallevelandthesmallerstreamwatershedmorelocallyareidealunitsofanalysisforecologicalplanning.Awatershedisanareadrainedbyastreamorstreamsystem,alsocalledacatchmentareaor,intheUnitedStatesatalargerriverscale,includingallthetributaries,adrainagebasin.

Adrainagebasin,orwatershed,“istheareaoflandthatdrainswater,sediment,anddissolvedmaterialstoacommonoutletatsomepointalongastreamchannel”（DunneandLeopold1978,495）.AccordingtoDonaldSatterlundandPaulAdams（1992,51）,“Awatershedisdefinedbythestreamthatdrainsit.”Thedrainageway,meanwhile,“referstotheprincipalareasofwateraccumulation（i.e.,channels）”（Briggs1996,17）.

Awatershed,orotherlandscape,maybeunderstoodthroughachorography—inotherwords,asystematicdescriptionandanalysis.Ecologycanbeusedtoordersuchachorographysinceecologyaddressesinterrelationshipsamonglivingthingsandtheirenvironments.TheecologistEugeneOdumhasobservedthevalueofusingwatershedsinplanning.Odumnotedthat“itisthewholedrainagebasin,notjustthebodyofwater,thatmustbeconsideredastheminimumecosystemunitwhenitcomestoman’sinterests.Theecosystemunitforpracticalmanagementmustthenincludeforeverysquaremeteroracreofwateratleast20timesanareaofterrestrialwatershed”（Odum1971,16）.

PeterQuinby（1988）notesthatwatershedboundariescanbeusedasecosystemboundaries.Thewatershedisahandyunitthatcontainsbiological,physical,social,andeconomicprocesses.Watershedshavediscreteboundaries,yettheycanvaryinscale.Thisprovidesflexibilitytoadapttosocial,economic,andpoliticalissues.Watershedsalsoofferlinkagesbetweentheelementsofregions.Onereasontheycanbeconsideredanidealisthattheflowofwater,thelinkage,throughoutthewatershedmaybeeasilyvisualized.

Theuseofwatershedsforplanningisnotnew.JohnWesleyPowell,whointroducedthetermregiontoNorthAmerica,essentiallysuggestedtheuseofwatershedsinhis1879planfortheAmericanWest.Theuseofwatershedsisalsoconsistentwithpasteffortsofwatershedconservanciesandriverbasincommissions,suchastheDelawareRiverBasinCommission,theColumbiaRiverBasinCommission,andtheTennesseeValleyAuthority,andwithprogramsoftheNaturalResourcesConservationService,theArmyCorpsofEngineers,theNationalParkService,andtheU.S.ForestService.But,moreoftenthannot,unitsotherthanwatersheds—politicalboundariesmostfrequently—areused.Stilltheprincipleofhierarchycanapplytopoliticalboundaries,withcountiesformingtheregionalscaleandcitiesortownsbeingusedastheunitforlocallandscapeanalysis.

Inthischapter,amethodfortheinventory,analysis,andsynthesisofthebiophysicalcomponentsofthelandscapeintheplanningprocessispresented.Thisapproachtodatacollectioncanbeusedattheregional,local,andevensite-specificscales.Toillustratethischapter,anexampleoftheDesertViewTri-VillagesAreaofPhoenix,Arizona,isused.Thislandscapewasformerlynamed“PlanningAreasC&D”bycityofficials.Thisbiophysicalinventoryandanalysiswasconductedasapartofalargercityplanningprocess.Theareaencompassesapproximately20percentofthecityandwaslargelyundevelopedwhenecologicalinventorieswereinitiated.Twoslightlydifferentboundariesappearintheexamplesthatfollowbecausetheyweredrawnfromdifferentinventoriesconductedinthespaceofthreeyears（Ciekotetal.1995;Bradyetal.1998）.Intheinterveningyears,thecityofPhoenixannexedmoreland,changingthestudyareaboundaries.Thischapterpresentsmethodsformakingbasemaps,inventoryingelementsofthelandscape,andanalyzingandsynthesizingthisinformation.Twoexamples,theNewJerseyPinelandsandtheregionofCampPendleton,California,arealsousedasillustrations.Eachexampleemployedanapproachsimilartotheonepresentedhere,butthespecificmethodsweredesignedbytheresponsibleplanningteams.

MakingaBaseMapandaRegionalContextMap

Thestartingpointforcollectinginformationinagraphicformatisthebasemap,amapfromwhichcopiesaremadeorderived.ThemostconvenientsourceforapaperbasemapintheUnitedStatesistheUSGS7.5-minutequadranglemapswithascaleof1:

24,000.USGSmapsareavailableformostareasintheUnitedStatesinpaperand,increasingly,digitalformats.Theygivethelocationofallbuildings（exceptinurbanareas）,bodiesofwater,elevations,contourlines,roads,raillines,politicalboundaries,andsomewoodlands.Aportionofaquadranglemaporseveralquadranglemapspiecedtogethercanbephotographicallyreproducedonpolyesterfilm.Additionalinformationcanbeaddedtothepolyesterfilmtoformthebasemap.Themostimportantinformationincludesthemapofthestudyarea,anortharrow,aproportionalscale,amaptitle,alegend,thesourceoftheinformationdisplayed,thenameoftheplanningarea,andthenamesofthecompany,universitygroup,and/oragencyperformingthestudy.

Thesameprocesscanbeundertakenwiththecomputerwithgeographicinformationsystems（GIS）technology（Figure3.1）.PlanningteamsdecidehowtousetheGIS.Thedatahandlingandcomputationprocesscanthenbeautomated.TheuseofGIScanprovideaneffectivecartographicpresentationoftheresultsinadditiontocreatinggreaterflexibilityoverpapermaps（Xiang1996,8）.

FIGURE3.1DesertViewTri-VillagesAreabasemap.（Source:

AdaptedfromCiekotetal.1995）

Whenconstructingmaps,eitherdigitallyormanually,oneneedstoconsiderthemeaningofscale.A0.5mmpencilwilldrawouta12m（ordriveway-wide）lineonthegroundifonemakesalinewithitona1:

24,000scalemap.Suchrealizationprovidessomecontextformapprecision.Arguingovercentimetersorincheswillnotusuallyberelevantforthat,buttenstohundredsofmetersorfeetmightbe.

Inadditiontothefamiliar7.5-minutequadranglemaps,orthoaerialphotographsatthesamescalearenowavailablefromtheUSGSformanyplaces.TheU.S.GeologicalSurveyalsoisas