Bahai and Subud dissent Developments in the s.docx
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Bahai and Subud dissent Developments in the s.docx
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BahaiandSubuddissentDevelopmentsinthes
Baha’iandSubuddissent:
Developmentsinthe2000’s
BeiDawei
HsuanChuangUniversity(Hsinchu,Taiwan)
Abstract:
AlthoughtheBaha’ireligion(aShi’ighulatsectwhichoriginatedinthe1860’s,amongPersiansexiledtotheOttomanEmpire)andSubud(aJavanesekebatinanmovementfromthe1930’s)aregenealogicallyunrelated,parallelsincludetheirsharedexperienceofinternationalization,grandioseinstitution-buildingaspirations,andconcernoverhowtoframetheirIslamicroots.Ineachcase,charismaticleadershiphasbeensucceededbyasemi-electedhierarchy,whosestructureanddecisionsareregularlycriticizedbydissidentsandex-members.Theriseoftheinternethasgivennewpublicityandvitalitytothesedisagreements.
Reelingfromthe“internetwars”andpurgesofdissidentsduringthe1990’s,Baha’idissidentshaveestablishedseveralYahoogroups,aswellasmutually-reinforcingblogs,wherechallengestoofficialviewsareoftenraised.Meanwhile,disaffectedSubudianshavecreatedtheonlinejournalSubudVision,whosecontentsmaybedescribedasthoughtful,fair-minded,andintenselycritical.Despiteobviousdifferencesinreligiousculture,Baha’iandSubuddissidentsneverthelesshavemuchincommon.Lesssimilarhasbeentheresponseoftheobjectsoftheirreform:
Baha’iauthoritieshavereacteddefensively,withfurtherpurges,andattacksonthecredibilityoftheircritics;whileSubudinstitutionshaveapparentlydonenothing,eithertopunishcriticsortoaddresstheirconcerns.
TheBaha’idebatehasspilledintotheacademicworldwithsuchpublicationsasWilliamGarlington’sTheBaha’iFaithinAmerica(Praeger,2005),SenMcGlinn’sChurchandState:
APostmodernPoliticalTheology(self-published,2005),andMoojanMomen’sarticle“MarginalityandapostasyintheBaha’iFaith”(Religionno.37,2007).Thelatterattemptstoanalyze—nonetoocharitably—thepsychologicalmotivationsofseventeenunnamed(butreadilyidentifiable)dissidents;itinspiredawaveofonlinerebuttalsfromthosetargeted.NocomparabledevelopmentseemstohaveoccurredamongSubudians.
Introduction
TheBaha’ireligionandSubudreceiveregularmentionintheliteratureof“NewReligiousMovements,”thoughtheirnewnessisofcourserelative,tosomeextentsubjective,andonlyoneofthemclaimsoradmitsitselftobereligious.Theyaregenealogicallyunrelated—theBaha’ireligionaroseinthe19thcenturyPersianandOttomanempires,Subudin1930’sJava—buthaveevolvedincertainparallelways.Bothcouldbecalled“post-Islamic”inthattheyhave,inasense,transcendedtheirIslamicorigins,influencedbythegradualpreponderanceofbelieversfromnon-Islamicbackgrounds.
ThekeyclaimofBaha’itheologyisthatthatBaha’u’llah,theBaha’ifounder,isthemostrecentinaseriesofdivineprophets(supersedingChrist,Muhammad,etc.),whosedispensationpromisestoinaugurateaneweraofworldunityandpeace.ItresemblesotherShi’ighulat(“exaggerating”)sectsinitsascriptionofdivinitytoasaintlyhumanfigure.WhileacknowledgingitsTwelverShi’ibackground,Baha’issaytheirreligionemergedfromIslaminthesamewaythatChristianityemergedfromJudaism;thusitisan“independentworldreligion,”andthustheyoungestoftheAbrahamicfaiths.(Thisinterpretationhasprevailedsincethe1950’s,underBahau’llah’sgreat-grandson,ShoghiEffendi.)TheBaha’ireligionbeganattractingWesternconvertsinthe1890’s,thenspreadacrosstheThirdWorldinthe1950’sand1960’s(again,underShoghiEffendi);itnowboastsseveralhundredthousandfollowersscatteredaroundtheworld.AlthoughitscalendarbeginsinAD1844(whichistheyear1oftheBaha’iEra),itspresentinstitutionalstructure—tierednine-memberregionalcouncilsheadedbytheUniversalHouseofJusticeinHaifa,Israel—datesonlyfrom1963.
Meanwhile,thecentralelementofSubudisthelatihankejiwaan(“spiritualexercise”),inwhichSubudmembersregularlyenterclosedrooms,segregatedbysex,tobepurifiedbyAlmightyGod(ortheGreatLifeForce)bymeansofspontaneousmovementsorutterances.SubudtheologyhasmuchincommonwithotherJavanesealirankebatinan(“mysticalmovements”);however,itsrhetoricinsiststhatSubudisnotareligion,and—despitemuchevidencetothecontrary—thatitlacksanydoctrinalcontent.TheSubudfounder,M.SubuhSumohadowidjojo(called“Bapak”)criticizedkebatinanmovements,implicitlydenyingthatSubudwasone.SubudiansdisagreeamongthemselvesastotheextenttowhichBapak’spronouncements,whichareoftenofafolkIslamiccharacter,oughttobebelievedoremphasized.Inthe1950’s,BritishexpatHuseinRoféspreadSubudfromIndonesiatoJapan,HongKong,Cyprus,andmostcrucially,England,whereitsenthusiasticreceptionbyfollowersof(Gurdjieffstudent)JohnG.Bennetttransformedthemovementintoaninternational,multiethnicnetworkofabout10,000members.AsignificantminorityhaveconvertedtoIslam,orotherwiseadoptedcertaintrappingsorpracticesofthatreligion,suchas“Muslim”namesortheRamadanfast.
EarlyexperienceofgrowthhasencouragedbothBaha’isandSubudianstoentertaingrandioseexpectationsofworldconquest,oritsspiritualequivalent.Specifically,Baha’isseethemselvesasthenucleusofafutureglobalcivilization,andanticipatetheemergenceofaworldgovernmentwhoseadministrationwillbeguidedbyBaha’iprinciples,ifitisnotactuallycomposedofBaha’iinstitutions.Subudiansfortheirparthailthelatihanasaspiritualforcecapableoftransformingthelivesofitspractitionersinsuchawaythatever-expandingcirclesofparticipantswillbedrawntoit.MariusKahanrelatesthat
BackwhenIwasanapplicant,thesentimentmostoftenexpressedwasthatSubudmemberswereonthereceivingendofamiracle—thatSubudwasthetrailblazerofaspiritualrevolutionwhichwouldsweeptheworld,unitingallreligionsandusheringinaneweraofharmony.
Bythe2000’s,however,suspicionshademergedwithinbothmovementsthatthefuturewasnotgoingaccordingtoplan.FortheBaha’is,massconversionsandworldpeace(whichsomeearlierliteraturepredictedtobeinplacebytheyear2000)havefailedtomaterialize,andthefaithremainsobscureevenamidstburgeoningpublicinterestinIslamandtheMiddleEast.Inflatedmembershipfigures(claimsoffive,six,orsevenmillionBaha’isareregularlyencountered)disguisearealityofhighturnover.TheUniversalHouseofJusticecontinuestoannouncemulti-yearplans,intheponderousstyleoftheoldSovietUnion,buttodaytheemphasisislessonnumericgrowth(sincethiscannotbefeignedindefinitely)thanon“consolidating”thefaiththroughRuhistudycircles,usingaseriesofSunday-schoolstyleworkbookswhichdissidentsoftenfindstultifying.Theideaistopreparethefaithtoreceive“entrybytroops”inthefuture.Similarly,Subud’smembershiphasbeenstagnantfordecades,withagingdemographics.Moraleplummetedinthewakeofthefounder’sdeathin1987,andthefailureofvariousSubud“enterprises”andprojectsovertheyears(decision-makingonthebasisofspiritualguidancereceivedduringthelatihanhavingprovenunreliable).InternationalSubudconferencesnowcenteraroundtheassignmentofmissions,funds,andpersonnel(subjectto“testing”duringgrouplatihan)toanever-evolving“alphabetsoup”oforganizationsandcommittees:
WSA,ISC,SYA/SIYA/SYAI,SCA/SICA,SES/SESI,MSF,SDIA,SIHA,etc.
Ineachgroup,charismaticleadershiphasbeensucceededbyasemi-electedhierarchy,whosestructureanddecisionsareregularlycriticizedbydissidentsandex-members.Theriseoftheinternethasgivennewpublicityandvitalitytothesedisagreements.By“dissidents”Imeanbelieversledbyscholarship,conscience,etc.toadvocaterevisionstothereceivedtradition,despitestronginstitutionalresistance(whetherintheformofoppositionorapathy).Ascritics,dissidentsbearsomeresemblancetodisgruntledex-members.Baha’idissidentsincludemembersingoodstanding(thoughperhapsmarginalizedfortheirviews)aswellas“unenrolled”believers.(SuchdistinctionsarelargelyirrelevanttoSubud.)
Herewemustnoteacrucialdifferenceofinstitutionalculture:
Baha’isareencouragedtoregardtheirleadersandinstitutionsasdivinelyappointedandguided,andobediencetothemasdivinelymandated.Dissentisthereforeportrayedasspirituallydangerousand,inordertoforestallcontagion,punishedwithsanctionsofvarioustypes.ThisethosaroseinthecontextofthevarioussuccessiondisputeswhichhaveoccurredinBaha’ihistory,andwhichhaveinvariablyresultedinschismandmutualexcommunications,oftendividingfamilies.(Indeed,theBaha’ireligionitselfbeganasonefactioninjustsuchadispute.)Baha’itheologyspeaksofa“covenant”bywhichGodhasguaranteedtheunityofthefaith—asrepresentedbytheirparticularbranchoftheschismatictree—andensuredthatrivalgroupsultimatelycometonothing.Intheeventthattheadministrationdeclaressomeonetobea“covenantbreaker,”allBaha’ismustshun(ostracize)thatperson,onpainofbeingshunnedthemselves.DissidentshavethereforegonetoconsiderablelengthstoavoidputtingtheirBaha’ifriendsandrelativesinthisposition,e.g.byresigningfromthefaithasadefensivemeasure.TheBaha’iadministrationforitspartseemstohaverecognizedtheperilsofsuchaham-fistedapproach,andinrecentyearshasshiftedtothelesserpunishmentof“disenrollment”(i.e.,expulsion,removingamember’snamefromtherollsofbelievers),withthelabelof“covenantbreaker”reservedforactualmembersofrivalBaha’igroups(whowereneververynumerous,and
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