Task 4 机经20道王其位.docx
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Task 4 机经20道王其位.docx
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Task4机经20道王其位
机经一:
2009.1.10
Question4
SamplingError
Often,studentsoremployeeswillbeaskedtodrawaconclusionfromahugeamountofdata.That’swhenasampleisintroduced.Whenasampleisaccurate,itcanrepresentthewholegroup.Butwhenitiswrong,samplingerrorwouldoccur.Instatistics,samplingerrororestimationerroriscausedbyobservingasinglesampleinsteadofthewholepopulation.Samplingerrorcanbefoundbysubtractingthevalueofaparameterfromthevalueofastatistic.Generally,therearetwomethodsofreducingsamplingerror:
increasingthesamplesize,andensuringthatthesamplecanadequatelyrepresenttheentirepopulation.
ListeningScripts:
M:
Well,soyoumayhaveideasofsamplingerrornow.aswhatwejustlearned,theaccuracyofthesamplehasaninfluenceontheanalysisofthewholegroup.Ifthesampleisinaccurate,samplingerrormightappear.
Aresearcherconductedanexperimenttocalculatetheamountoffishofdifferentsizes–bigfish,middle-sizedfishandsmallfish.Becauseitwasimpossibletocalculateeveryfishinthepond,theresearcherjustscoopedoutthefishwithafishingnetandobtainedonenetoffishashisstatisticsamples.Itturnedoutthattherewereonlybigfishandmiddle-sizedfishinhisnet,whichmadehimwonderwhythereweren’tanysmallfishinthepond.Afterobservingthatsomesmallfishdidexistinthepond,hestartedtosearchwhyhecouldnotobtainonesampleofsmallfish.Finally,hefiguredoutthatthiswasbecausesmallfishhadescapedfromhisbig-meshnet.
SampleAnswer:
Thepassagetalkesaboutastatisticsterm“samplingerror”,whichiscausedbyobservingasinglesampleinsteadofthewholepopulation.Ifthesampleisinaccurate,samplingerrormightappear.Thelecturecitedoneexperimenttoillustratetheterm.Aresearcherintenedetoconductanexperimenttocalculatetheamountoffishofdifferentsizesinonepond.Theresearcherscoopedoutonenetoffishtobehisstatisticsample.Tohissurprise,therewereonlybigfishandmiddle-sizedfishinhisnet.Finally,hefiguredoutthatsmallfishhadalreadyescapedfromhisbig-meshfishingnet.
机经二:
2009.2.14
Question4
ObservationalLearning
Somescientistsbelievedthatdirectreinforcementcouldnotaccountforalltypesoflearning.Bandura’slearningtheoryaddedasocialelement,arguingthatpeoplecanlearnnewinformationandbehaviorsbywatchingotherpeople.Knownasobservationallearning(ormodeling),thistypeoflearningcanbeusedtoexplainawidevarietyofbehaviors.Observationallearningtakesplacewhenanindividualacquiresahabitorskillthroughwitnessingtheperformanceofanotherperson.Suchlearningoften,butnotalways,involvesimitationoftheobservedactivities.
ListeningScripts:
M:
Nowwebelievethatobservationallearningmaytakeplacewhenchildrenwatchotherpeople’sperformances.In1961,BanduraconductedhisfamousBobodollexperimenttotestwhetherornotchildrenwouldimitateadultmodels’behavior,say,aggressivebehaviorornon-aggressivebehavior.
Twogroupsofchildrenwereputseparatelyintotwoplayrooms,andtwoadultmodelswereseatedineachroomcontainingatinkertoyandaBobodoll.Afterawhile,theaggressivemodelwouldattacktheBobodollphysically.Meanwhile,thenon-aggressivemodelsimplyplayedwiththetinkertoysfortheentireperiod.Then,bothcholdrenweretakenintoanotherplayroomfilledwithhighlyentertainingtoysandwereleftalonefor20minutes.Judgeswatchedeachchildfromthewindowandrecordedthesechildren’sperformance.
Theresultshowedthatthechildrenexposedtotheaggressivemodelweremorelikelytoactinphysicallyaggressiveways.Bandurasuccessfullysupportedhistheoryofobservationallearninginthisexperimentandcametotheconclusionthatchildrentendtothinkthatthebehaviortheyareobservingisacceptable.
SampleAnswer:
Observationallearningmeansthatchildrencanacquirenewthingsthroughwatchingadults’performances.In1961,BanduraconductedhisfamousBobodollexperimenttosuportthistheory.Twentyfourchildrenweredividedintotowoplayroomswheretwoadultmodelswereseated.Theaggressiveadultmodelwasattackingthedollwhiletheotherplayedthetinkertoyallthetime.Thenbothgroupswereputintoaroomoftoysandthoseexposedtotheaggressivemodeltendtoactinmoreaggressiveways.ThisprovesBandura’stheorythatchildrenmaybeinfluencedbyadults’behaviorthroughobservationallearning.
机经三:
2009.3.29
Question4
FixedActionPatternsofAnimalBehavior
Afixedactionpatternreferstoasequenceofinnatebehaviorsthatisessentiallyunchangeableandusuallyconductedtocompletiononcestarted.Itistriggeredbyasensorystimuluscalledasignstimulus.Becausetheanimalrespondstothesignstimulus,ratherthantheenvironmentasawhole,itmaybe“tricked”bysignalsthatareoutoftheirusualcontext.Evenhumanbeingshavesomebehaviorsinfixedactionpatterns,suchassneezes.Understandingsomefixedparrternsofanimalbehaviorcanhelpustolookdeeperintothebehaviorofanimals.
ListeningScripts:
M:
Whenstimulatedbycertainsignals,animalswouldisplaysomebehaviorsoutoftheirnature,andthatiswhatwecallasfixedactionpatterns.Someactionsarecommontoallmembersofaspeciestotheextentthatdifferentmembersofaspeciestendtoperformthebehaviorinarecognizablysimilarfashion.
Therewasakindoffishcalledred-tailedcrestedpufferlivinginthetropicaloceannearbytheCaribbeanSea.Themalecrestedpuffertendstoattackthosewithredmarkwhoenteritsterritorycarelessly.However,thecrestedpufferjustignoresthosewithouttheredmarkandcanlivepeacefullywiththeinvaders.Anothercaseisfemalegoose.Afterlayingeggs,afemalegooseisinclinedtomoveitsheadbackandforthinstinctively.Interestingly,aftermovingtheireggsoutofthenest,thefemalegoosecontinuedtomoveitsheadtoandfro.Thesearetwoexamplesoffixedpatternsofanimalbehavior.
SampleAnswer:
Afixedactionpatternreferstoanimal‘sinnatebehaviorsthatareusuallyunchangeableandoftenconductedtocompletiononcestarted.Theprofessordiscussestwoexamplestoillustratehowanimalsbehaveinafixedpattern.Malecrestedpufferstendtoattackfishwithredmarks,andtheywillignorethoseinvaderswithoutredmarksontheirbodies.Anothercaseisthefemalegoose.Itisinclinedtomoveitsheadaroundtoprotectitsducklingsafterlayingtheeggs.Interestingly,itkeptdoingthisevenaftertheeggsaremovedoutofthenest.
机经四:
2009.4.3
Question4
Priming
Priming,onekindofimplicitmemoryeffects,referstoanincreasedsensitivitytocertainsimuliduetopriorexperience.Itcanoccurafterperceptual,semantic,orconceptualstimulusrepetitionanditcanaffectthesubject’sjudgment.Ithappens,forexample,ifapersonreadsalistofwordsincludingtheword“table”,andislateraskedtocompleteawordstartingwith“tab”,theprobabilitythatheanswer“table”isgreaterthanifnotsoprimed.
Theeffectsofprimingcanbeverysalientandlonglasting,evenmoresothansimplerecognitionmemory.Unconsciousprimingeffectscanaffectwordchoiceonaword-stemcompletiontestlongafterthewordshavebeenconsciouslyforgotten.
ListeningScripts:
M:
Wejustdiscussedthatpriming,akindofimplicitmemoryeffects,maybestimulatedbypeople’spriorexperienceandthesubjecttendtointerpretasituationaccordingtohisformercognitiveexperience.Primingcanbefoundinlearningprocessaswellasinpeople’sordinarylife.
Forexample,agirltookabustogohomeaftercollegegraduation.Onherway,whileshewasrecallingherstudentlifeattentively,amangotonthebusandstartedtowritedownsoethingrightafterhetooktheseat.Thegirlimmediatelymadeaconclusionthatthemanwasastudentwhowassolvingdifficultacademicproblems,suchasdoingcalculationsormakingupcoursenotes.Thisassumptionwasmadeduetoherpriorstudentlifeexperience,whichmadeherthinkthatayoungmanwithapenwascertaintobeayoungstudent.Coincidentally,anothergirlwhotookthesamebusalsomadeherownspeculation.Thisgirljustpublishedherfirstvolumeofpoemsandwasintheexcitementofliterarycreation.Shethoughtofthemanasapoetoranovelistwhowasplottinganewstoryorrecordinghisinspirationforanewpoem.Herconclusionwasalsoinfluencedbytheeffectsofpriming,thatis,one’slatestsocialexperiencecan,tosomeextent,determineherjudgment.
SampleAnswer:
Primingreferstoakindofimplicitmemoryeffectsthatcanincreasepeople’ssensitivitytowardscertainaspectsoflifeandaffectpeople’sjudgmentstosomeextent.Thelecturerusesanexampletoillustratetheterm.Whenamangotonthebusandstartedtotakesomenotes,agirlwhohadjustgraduatedfromcollegequicklyreachedaconclusionthathewasastudentwhowasdealingwithsomeacademicproblems.Onthecontrary,anothergirlwhosawthemanregardedhimasawriter.Thiswasprobablybecauseshehadjustpublishedherownbookofpoetry,soshetendedtothinkofothersaspoetsmakingdrafts.
机经五:
2009.5.31
Question4
SocialReferencing
Socialreferencingisaprocessinwhichinfantsseekoutandinterprettheemotionalresponsesfromtheirparentstofromtheirownemotionalunderstandingofunfamiliarevents,objects,orpeople.Theconceptofsocialreferencinginchildrenhasbeenthesubjectofincreasingstudiesoverthelastquarterofacentury,asdevelopmentalpsychologistsseektounderstandtheformationofemotionininfantsandchildren.Researchesinthisareahavesoughttounders
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