汀图梅.docx
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汀图梅.docx
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汀图梅
Face
礼貌研究politene2010-11-0223:
00:
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大中小 订阅
BySarahRosenberg
February2004
source:
http:
//www.beyondintractability.org/essay/face/
MuchhasbeenwrittenabouttheCubanmissilecrisisof1962.Oneperspectiveputforthbyaleadingresearcheronfacetheories,StellaTing-Toomey,isthatthenegotiationcamedowntohowbothsidescouldretreattomorepeacefulpositionswithoutlosingface,orcausinglossoffaceforeachother.Fromthecorrespondencebetweenthetwoleaders(KennedyandKhrushchev),[1]itisapparentthattheyweretryingtofigureouthowtheycouldbothretainpersonalandnationalhonorinrelationtoeachotherandtotheinternationalarena.Kennedy,inhismemoirs,wroteaboutthesevenlessonshelearnedduringthecrisis,numbersixbeing,"Don'thumiliateyouropponent,"whichis,ofcourse,acentralfaceissue.And,asTing-Toomeyputit,"Byunderstandingtheface-honoringprocessintuitively,intellectually,anddiplomatically,thetwostatesmenlearnedtohonorandgivefacemutuallyintheeyesoftheirsalientreferentsandinthearenaofinternationaldiplomacy."
Face:
AGeneralDefinition:
Faceisamulti-facetedterm,anditsmeaningisinextricablylinkedwithcultureandothertermssuchashonoranditsopposite,humiliation.Savingfaceorgivingfacehasdifferentlevelsofimportance,dependingonthecultureorsocietywithwhichoneisdealing.Perhapsthemostfamiliartermtomanyis"savingface,"whichweunderstandsimplytomeannotbeingdisrespectfultoothersinpublic,ortakingpreventiveactionssothatwewillnotappeartolosefaceintheeyesofothers.Somewillimmediatelyassociatetheterm"face"withSino-Japanesecultures,butitwouldbeamistaketothinkthatthosearetheonlycaseswherefaceissuesareimportant.IntheCubanmissilecrisis,itwasveryimportantbothsidesnottolosefaceorcredibility,andthisneedguidedbothsides'negotiatingtactics.
Ting-Toomeydefinesfaceas"theinteractionbetweenthedegreeofthreatsorconsiderationsonepartyofferstoanotherparty,andthedegreeofclaimforasenseofself-respect(ordemandforrespecttowardone'snationalimageorculturalgroup)putforthbytheotherpartyinagivensituation."[2]Specifictoface-negotiationtheory,faceisunderstoodastheimageoneprojectsofoneselforone'snationalimageinapublicforum.AsBrownunderstoodtheissue:
Amongthemosttroublesomekindsofproblemsthatariseinnegotiationaretheintangibleissuesrelatedtolossofface.Insomeinstances,protectingagainstlossoffacebecomessocentralanissuethatitswampstheimportanceofthetangibleissuesatstakeandgeneratesintenseconflictsthatcanimpedeprogresstowardagreementandincreasesubstantiallythecostsofconflictresolution.[3]
Low-Contextvs.High-ContextCultures
Tounderstandtherelevanceoffaceindifferentcultures,onemustlearnhowtoidentifylow-contextandhigh-contextsocietiesbehavior.Itisimportanttonotethatmanyculturesareneitherwhollylow-contextnorhigh-context,butinsteadcombinethetwo,andthatthecontextmayvarydependingonthesituation.However,theseprinciplesarehelpfulasaframeworkfordiscussionandanalysis.andwhattypesofcharacteristicstheyeachimply,especiallyinnegotiating
Ingeneral,theU.S.andotherWesterncountriesareconsideredlow-contextsocieties.Thismeansthatverbalcommunicationismostoftendirect,andthatthereisverylittleconcernorneedfornonverbalcuesinorderforpeopletounderstandeachother.RaymondCohen,arespectedresearcheroncultureandnegotiation,explainsthatatthecoreofalow-contextsocietyisthebeliefinthefreedomoftheindividual,hencetheterm"individualistic"societies.
Inthesesocieties,individualrightssupercedeblinddutytoone'sfamily,clan,ethnicgroup,ornation.Peoplegenerallytryto"saywhattheymeanandmeanwhattheysay."Inindividualisticsocieties,"[e]qualityistheprevailingethicinsocietyandpolitics.Statusisacquired,notinherited..."and,moreimportantly,"...contract,notcustom,prescribestheindividual'slegalobligationtoagiventransaction,roleorcourseofaction."[4]Inthesesocieties,itisindividual,personalguiltthatservesasamoralcompass.Ifonecommitsasocialblunderasanadult,inmostcases,thereisnogroupshameinvolved,onlypersonalembarrassment,and(onehopes)adesiretocorrectthewrongwithasincereapology.Conflictsareseenasanaturalpartoflife;theyaresimplydealtwithandthenpeoplemoveon.Inindividualisticsocieties,intheoryifnotalwaysinpractice,peoplearefreetomoveandassociatethemselveswithanygroupstheylike.Inlightofallthis,theplacethatfaceissuesholdinlow-contextculturesisnotnearlyasimportantasincollectivisticsocieties.Butwhencommunicatingwithcultural"others,"itisobviouslyextremelyimportanttomakeoneselfawareofpossibledifferencesbeforehand.Face,itturnsout,isquiteaseriousissueinmanyplaces.
High-contextsocietiesincludecountriessuchasKorea,China,andJapaninAsia,Middle-EasterncountriessuchasEgyptandIran,[5]andLatinAmericancountries.Sometimes,theseculturesarereferredtoascollectivistic,orinterdependent.Veryoften,thesehigh-contextculturesarehierarchicalandtraditionalsocietiesinwhichtheconceptsofshameandhonoraremuchmoreimportantthantheyareinlow-contextsocieties.[6]
Inhigh-contextcultures,groupharmonyisofutmostimportance.Peopleintheseculturesdislikedirectconfrontation,andforthemostpartavoidexpressingaclear"no."Evasionandinaccuracyarepreferredinordertokeepappearancespleasant.Thereisadangeroflosingfacesimplybynotreachinganagreementwithanotherpersonorgroup,ifthatwasthegoal.Beinghumiliatedbeforethegroup,orlosingfacebeforeone'sconstituents,canbeafateworsethandeathinsomecases.[7]
Waysinwhichonecanlosefaceinclude:
∙arebuffedoverture
∙exposuretopersonalinsult
∙exposuretoaderogatoryremarkordisregardforone'sstatus
∙beingforcedtogiveupacherishedvalue
∙makingwhatmaylaterbeseenasan"unnecessary"concession
∙failuretoachievegoals
∙revelationofpersonalinadequacy
∙damagetoavaluedrelationship.[8]
Thekeydifferencetorememberhereisthathigh-contextcultureswanttorepairorbuildrelationshipswhilelow-contextculturesmostoftendesiretosimplyproblem-solveandmoveon.
Somewhereinthisdifferenceinthinkingandbehaviorliesthekeytotheimportanceoffaceininterdependentcultures.
ImportanceinCommunicationandLanguage
High-contextcommunicationisprimarilyconcernedwithmaintainingfaceandgroupharmony.[9]Everywordisconsideredcarefully,andmanyexpressionsofrespectandcourtesyareincluded.Thesecommunicatorsareconcernedaboutlosingface,andwillusuallyemployevasivenessinsteadofexplicitdisagreement,becausebeingrebuffedcouldcauselossofface.Thisiswhentone,phrasing,andbodylanguagebecomeveryimportant.Forexample,low-contextnegotiatorsoftenhavetroublerecognizinga"no"whenahigh-contextnegotiatorexpressesavague,non-bindingformofanaffirmative.
Forthelow-contextcommunicator,languageisameanstofindandconveyinformation.Oneisnotoffendedwhenmetwithcontradiction,Cohensays,becauseindividualisticsocietiesthriveondebateandthefundamentalbeliefinthefreedomofexpression.One'sbehaviorisguidedbyasenseofpersonalresponsibilityandapersonalsenseofguilt,ratherthanbyshameinflictedbythegroup;asaresult,communicationismuchlesscarefullywatchedthanincollectivisticcultures,wherehumiliationistobeavoidedatallcosts.
ImportanceinNegotiation
AccordingtoCohen,ahigh-contextnegotiator'snightmareislossofface.Aslistedabove,therearemanywaysinwhichthismighthappen,andheorshewilldoeverythinginordertoensurethatitwillnot happen.Ahigh-contextnegotiatorpreferstotakeasmuchuncertaintyaspossibleoutofthepicture.Evenfailuretoreachanagreementcanresultinlossofface,soheorshewilltrytoforeseeandplaneveryaspectoftheensuingnegotiationinordertopreventfailure.CohenlistsChinaandJapanastwodifferentstrategicexamplesforhowthisisdone.ManyJapanesenegotiatorsengageinextensiveinformationgathering,sothattheyknowthepositionsaheadoftimeandcanthenadjusttheirownpositiontowhattheythinkwillberealistic.Chinesestrategyistheexactopposite.Theymakesurethattheotherpartyisquiteawareofnonnegotiablepositionsaheadoftime.Theywillonlycometothetableifthesetermshavealreadybeenimplicitlyaccepted.Mostlikely,theywillnotcometothetableiftheythinkthereistoomuchpotentialforhumiliationandlossofdignity.Thecommondenominatorbetweenthesetwopositions,accordingtoCohen,is"avoidingaleapintotheunknown"anddiminishingthepossibilitiesforlossoffaceaheadoftime.[10]
Ting-Toomey'sFace-NegotiationModel
Ting-Toomey'sarticle,IntergroupDiplomaticCommunication,highlightsthefactthatduringnegotiation,therearetwosimultaneousfaceprocessesgoingon.Althoughmuchmoreattentionhasbeengiveninthepasttoface-threateningbehaviors,face-honoringprocessesalsooccur.Shearguesthatdiplomatsmustlearnthatface-maintenanceisthekeytosuccessfulinter-groupnegotiation.Byface-maintenance,shemeans"thedesiretoprojectanimageofstrengthandcapability,orconversely,toavoidprojectinganimageofincapability,weakness,orfoolishness."[11]Thefollowingfigurehelpstoexplainthismodel.
Face-threateningprocessesincludeface-savingandf
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