语言学Chapter 4.docx
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语言学Chapter 4.docx
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语言学Chapter4
Chapter4Syntax
A
4.1Syntax
—Thedefinitionofsyntax
—Approachestothestudyofsentences
-Thetraditionalapproach
-Thestructuralapproach
-Thegenerativeapproach
-Thefunctionalapproach
4.2Categories
4.2.1Word-levelcategories
—Thedefinitionofsyntacticcategories
—Twokindsofword-levelcategories
-Majorlexicalcategories
‐Noun(N)
‐Verb(V)
‐Adjective(A)
‐Preposition(P)
-Minorlexicalcategories
‐Determiner(Det)
‐Degreewords(Deg)
‐Qualifier(Qual),Auxiliary(Aux)
‐Conjunction(Con)
‐Complementizer(C)
4.2.2Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures
—Thedefinitionofphrase
—Phrasalcategories
-Nounphrase(NP)
-Verbphrase(VP)
-Adjectivephrase(AP)
-Prepositionalphrase(PP)
—Theelementsofphrases
-Head
-Specifier
-Complement
4.3Phrasestructurerule
—Thedefinitionofphrasestructurerules
—ThephrasestructureruleforNP,VP,AP,PP
-
NP(Det)N(PP)...
-
VP(Qual)V(NP)...
-
AP(Deg)A(PP)...
-
PP(Deg)P(NP)...
4.3.1XPrule
TheXPrule:
XP(specifier)X(complement)
4.3.2Coordinationrule
—Thedefinitionofcoordinatestructures
—
Thecoordinationrule:
XX*ConX
4.4Phraseelements
4.4.1Specifiers
4.4.2Complements
TheXPRule(revised)XP(Specifier)X(Complement*)
—Complementizer
—Complementclause
—Complementphrase(CP)
—Matrixclause
4.4.3Modifiers
TheExpendedXPrule:
XP(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)
4.5Sentences(TheSRule)
TheSrule:
S
NPVP
4.6Transformations
—Deepstructure(D-structure)andsurfacestructure(S-structure)
—Sometransformationrules
-Auxiliarymovement
-Doinsertion
‐Doinsertionrule:
InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition
-Whmovement
‐WhMovement:
Movethewhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence
‐Whmovement(revised):
MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP
-Moveαandconstraintsontransformations
Introductionofalinguist----LeonardBloomfiel
LeonardBloomfield(April1,1887—April18,1949)wasanAmericanlinguistwholedthedevelopmentofstructurallinguisticsintheUnitedStatesduringthe1930sandthe1940s.HisinfluentialtextbookLanguage,publishedin1933,presentedacomprehensivedescriptionofAmericanstructurallinguistics.HemadesignificantcontributionstoIndo-Europeanhistoricallinguistics,thedescriptionofAustronesianlanguagesanddescriptionoflanguagesoftheAlgonquianfamily.
Bloomfield’sapproachtolinguisticswascharacterizedbyitsemphasisonthescientificbasisoflinguistics,adherencetobehaviorismespeciallyinhislaterworkandemphasisonformalproceduresfortheanalysisoflinguisticdata.TheinfluenceofBloomfieldianstructurallinguisticsdeclinedinthelate1950sand1960sasthetheoryofGenerativeGrammardevelopedbyNoamChomskycametopredominate.
ImmediateconstituentanalysisorICanalysisisamethodofsentenceanalysisthatwasfirstmentionedbyLeonardBloomfieldanddevelopedfurtherbyRulonWells.TheprocessreachedafullblownstrategyforanalyzingsentencestructureintheearlyworksofNoamChomsky.Thepracticeisnowwidespread.MosttreestructuresemployedtorepresentthesyntacticstructureofsentencesareproductsofsomeformofIC-analysis.TheprocessandresultofIC-analysiscan,however,varygreatlybaseduponwhetheronechoosestheconstituencyrelationofphrasestructuregrammars(=constituencygrammars)orthedependencyrelationofdependencygrammarsastheunderlyingprinciplethatorganizesconstituentsintohierarchicalstructures.
ICAnalysisreferstodivisionofasentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.
Immediateconstituents:
thetwopartsthatareyieldedafterasentenceiscutintoitsconstituentelements.
Ultimateconstituent:
thesmallestgrammaticalunitobtainedthroughthedivision,orsegmentationortheformsattheword-level.
B
4.1Syntax
Syntax:
abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.
Thetraditionalapproachtakesasentenceasasequenceofwords.Itstudiessentenceformationbystudyingwordsintermsofcategoriesandtheirinterrelationships.
Thestructuralapproachregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure(system),notasisolatedbits.Thisapproachtogrammar,basedonSaussure’sideasoflanguage,studiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenwords.
Thegenerativeapproachismainlyreferredtotransformational-generativegrammarproposedbyNoamChomsky.Chomskyproposesthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework.
Thefunctionalapproachoffersanalternativetostructuralism(formalism).Systemic-functionalapproachstartsfromclauseandextendsitselftodiscourse.Itinvolveswhatlanguagecanshow(ideationalfunction),whatkindofrelationcanitestablish(interpersonalfunction),andinwhatway(textualfunction).
4.2Categories
Category:
agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.
Syntacticcategory(句法范畴):
refer to the linguistic forms that have paradigmatic relations,whichcangenerallysubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.
Wordlevelcategorycanbedividedintotwokinds:
majorlexicalcategoriesandminorlexicalcategories.
Majorlexicalcategories(实义语类):
Noun,Verb,AdjectiveandPreposition
Minorlexicalcategories(功能语类):
Determiner(Det)限定词:
the,a,this,those
Degreewords(Deg)表程度:
quite,very,more,so
Qualifier(Qual)表频率:
often,always,seldom,almost
Auxiliary(Aux)助动词:
can,will,do,do,be,have
Conjunction(Conj)连词:
and,or,but
Complementizer(C)补语化成分:
that,if,for,whether
Phraseisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclauses.
4.2.2Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures
Phrasalcategories
Nounphrase(NP):
theprettygirl
Verbphrase(VP):
oftendream
Adjectivephrase(AP):
verypessimistic
Prepositionalphrase(PP):
mainlyabout
Phrasesareusuallycontainthefollowingelements:
Head,SpecifierandComplement.
Thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedistermedhead
Thewordontheleftsideoftheheadissaidtofunctionasspecifier
Thewordontherightsideoftheheadiscomplement.
4.3Phrasestructurerule
Phrasestructurerule:
grammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase.
-
NP(Det)N(PP)...
-
VP(Qual)V(NP)...
-
AP(Deg)A(PP)...
-
PP(Deg)P(NP)...
NPcanconsistofadeterminer(Det),anNheadandaPPcomplement,
forinstance:
thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls
VPcanbecomposedofaqualifier,aVandanNPcomplement,
forinstance:
alwaysplaygames,finishassignments
APcanbecomposedofadegreeword,aAandaPPcomplement
forinstance:
veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,verycloseto
PPcanconsistofadegreeword,aPandanNPcomplement,
forinstance:
ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation
TheXPrule:
XP(specifier)X(complement)
Coordinationrule:
Coordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.
Thecoordinationrule:
XX*ConX
4.4Phraseelements
Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementaretermedcomplementizers(shortenedasCs)
Thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizersiscalledacomplementclause.
Sentencecomplementiscalledcomplementphrase(shortenedasCP)
Theconstructioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembeddediscalledmatrixclause.
ModifiersinEnglishvaryintermsoftheirpositionwithrespecttothehead.
XP(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)
Thenewruleallowsamodifiertooccureitherbeforeorafterthehead.
Wherethereisacomplement,amodifierthatoccursaftertheheadwilloccurtotherightofthecomplementaswell.
E.g.,acarefulgirl,readcarefully,readabookcarefully,openthecanwithcare
4.5Sentences(TheSRule):
AsentencecombinesanNP(oftencalledthesubject)withaVP.
Linguiststakeanabstractcategoryinflectionasasentence’shead.InflectiontakesanNP(thesubject)asitsspecifierandaVPcategoryasitscomplement.
Inflp(=S):
NP+Infl+VP
ICAnalysis(直接成分分析法):
referstodivisionofasentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.
Immediateconstituents(直接成分):
thetwopartsthatareyieldedafterasentenceiscutintoitsconstituentelements.
Ultimateconstituent(最终成分):
thesmallestgrammaticalunitobtainedthroughthedivision,orsegmentationortheformsattheword-level.
4.6Transformations
Inversion:
moveinflectiontotheleftofthesubjectNP,forinstance,
Thetrainwillarrive--------Willthetrainarrive?
Doinsertion:
insertinterrogativedointoanemptyinflectionposition,forinstance,
Birdsfly--------birdsdofly
Aftertheauxiliarydoisinsertedintotheinflectionposition,theinversiontransformationcanbemadebymovingtheinterrogativedointotheCposition.
Birdsdofly-----Dobirdsfly?
DeepstructureisformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationproperties.
Surfacestructurecorrespondstothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformation.
C
ThischapterisaboutSyntax.Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.(Accordingtothetextbook)
Asforrules,thesequenceofwordsinformingthesentencesisalsoanimportantpartofsyntax.ThisbookmainlyfocusesonEnglishsyntax.Andthes
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- 语言学Chapter 语言学 Chapter
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