西方经济学名著导读.docx
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西方经济学名著导读.docx
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西方经济学名著导读
1
AnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesofthe
WealthofNations
AdamSmith
ChapterIII
OftheAccumulationofCapital,orofProductiveandUnproductiveLabor.
Thereisonesortoflabourwhichaddstothevalueofthesubjectuponwhichitisbestowed;thereisanotherwhichhasnosucheffect.Theformer,asitproducesavalue,maybecalledproductive;thelatter,unproductivelabor.(SomeFrenchauthorsofgreatlearningandingenuityhaveusedthosewordsinadifferentsense.Inthelastchapterofthefourthbook,Ishallendeavortoshewthattheirsenseisanimproperone.)Thusthelabourofamanufactureraddsgenerallytothevalueofthematerialswhichheworksupon,thatofhisownmaintenance,andofhismaster’sprofit.Thelabourofamenialservant,onthecontrary,addstothevalueofnothing.Thoughthemanufacturerhashiswagesadvancedtohimbyhismaster,heinrealitycostshimnoexpense,thevalueofthosewagesbeinggenerallyrestored,togetherwithaprofit,intheimprovedvalueofthesubjectuponwhichhislabourisbestowed.Butthemaintenanceofamenialservantneverisrestored.Amangrowsrichbyemployingamultitudeofmanufacturers;hegrowspoorbymaintainingamultitudeormenialservants.Thelabourofthelatter,however,hasitsvalue,anddeservesitsrewardaswellasthatoftheformer.Butthelabourofthemanufacturerfixesandrealizesitselfinsomeparticularsubjectorvendiblecommodity,whichlastsforsometimeatleastafterthatlabourispast.Itis,asitwere,acertainquantityoflabourstockedandstoreduptobeemployed,ifnecessary,uponsomeotheroccasion.Thatsubject,orwhatisthesamething,thepriceofthatsubject,canafterwards,ifnecessary,putintomotionaquantityoflabourequaltothatwhichhadoriginallyproducedit.Thelabourofthemenialservant,onthecontrary,doesnotfixorrealizeitselfinanyparticularsubjectorvendiblecommodity.Hisservicesgenerallyperishintheveryinstantoftheirperformance,andseldomleaveanytraceofvaluebehindthem,forwhichanequalquantityofservicecouldafterwardsbeprocured.
Thelabourofsomeofthemostrespectableordersinthesocietyis,likethatofmenialservants,unproductiveofanyvalue,anddoesnotfixorrealizeitselfinanypermanentsubject,orvendiblecommodity,whichenduresafterthatlabourispastandforwhichanequalquantityoflabourcouldafterwardsbeprocured.Thesovereign,forexample,withalltheofficersbothofjusticeandwarwhoserveunderhim,thewholearmyandnavy,areunproductivelabourers.Theyaretheservantsofthepublic,andaremaintainedbyapartoftheannualproduceoftheindustryofotherpeople.Theirservice,howhonourable,howuseful,orhownecessarysoever,producesnothingforwhichanequalquantityofservicecanafterwardsbeprocured.Theprotection,security,anddefenceofthecommonwealth,theeffectoftheirlabourthisyear,willnotpurchaseitsprotection,security,anddefencefortheyeartocome.Inthesameclassmustberanked,somebothofthegravestandmostimportant,andsomeofthemostfrivolousprofessions:
churchmen,lawyers,physicians,menoflettersofallkinds;players,buffoons,musicians,opera-singers,opera-dancers,etc.Thelabourofthemeanestofthesehasacertainvalue,regulatedbytheverysameprincipleswhichregulatethatofeveryothersortoflabour;andthatofthenoblestandmostuseful,producesnothingwhichcouldafterwardspurchaseorprocureanequalquantityoflabour.Likethedeclamationoftheactor,theharangueoftheorator,orthetuneofthemusician,theworkofallofthemperishesintheveryinstantofitsproduction.
Bothproductiveandunproductivelabourers,andthosewhodonotlabouratall,areallequallymaintainedbytheannualproduceofthelandandlabourofthecountry.Thisproduce,howgreatsoever,canneverbeinfinite,butmusthavecertainlimits.According,therefore,asasmallerorgreaterproportionofitisinanyoneyearemployedinmaintainingunproductivehands,themoreintheonecaseandthelessintheotherwillremainfortheproductive,andthenextyear’sproducewillbegreaterorsmalleraccordingly;thewholeannualproduce,ifweexceptthespontaneousproductionsoftheearth,beingtheeffectofproductivelabour.
Thoughthewholeannualproduceofthelandandlabourofeverycountryisnodoubtultimatelydestinedforsupplyingtheconsumptionofitsinhabitants,andforprocuringarevenuetothem;yetwhenitfirstcomeseitherfromtheground,orfromthehandsoftheproductivelabourers,itnaturallydividesitselfintotwoparts.Oneofthem,andfrequentlythelargest,is,inthefirstplace,destinedforreplacingacapital,orforrenewingtheprovisions,materials,andfinishedwork,whichhadbeenwithdrawnfromacapital;theotherforconstitutingarevenueeithertotheownerofthiscapital,astheprofitofhisstock,ortosomeotherperson,astherentofhisland.Thus,oftheproduceofland,onepartreplacesthecapitalofthefarmer;theotherpayshisprofitandtherentofthelandlord;andthusconstitutesarevenuebothtotheownerofthiscapital,astheprofitsofhisstock,andtosomeotherperson,astherentofhisland.Oftheproduceofagreatmanufactory,inthesamemanner,onepart,andthatalwaysthelargest,replacesthecapitaloftheundertakerofthework;theotherpayshisprofit,andthusconstitutesarevenuetotheownerofthiscapital.
Thatpartoftheannualproduceofthelandandlabourofanycountrywhichreplacesacapital,neverisimmediatelyemployedtomaintainanybutproductivehands.Itpaysthewagesofproductivelabouronly.Thatwhichisimmediatelydestinedforconstitutingarevenue,eitherasprofitorasrent,maymaintainindifferentlyeitherproductiveorunproductivehands.
Whateverpartofhisstockamanemploysasacapital,healwaysexpectsittobereplacedtohimwithaprofit.Heemploysit,therefore,inmaintainingproductivehandsonly;andafterhavingservedinthefunctionofacapitaltohim,itconstitutesarevenuetothem.Wheneverheemploysanypartofitinmaintainingunproductivehandsofanykind,thatpartisfromthatmomentwithdrawnfromhiscapital,andplacedinhisstockreservedforimmediateconsumption.
Unproductivelabourers,andthosewhodonotlabouratall,areallmaintainedbyrevenue;either,first,bythatpartoftheannualproducewhichisoriginallydestinedforconstitutingarevenuetosomeparticularpersons,eitherastherentofland,orastheprofitsofstock;or,secondly,bythatpartwhich,thoughoriginallydestinedforreplacingacapital,andformaintainingproductivelabourersonly,yetwhenitcomesintotheirhands,whateverpartofitisoverandabovetheirnecessarysubsistence,maybeemployedinmaintainingindifferentlyeitherproductiveorunproductivehands.Thus,notonlythegreatlandlordortherichmerchant,buteventhecommonworkman,ifhiswagesareconsiderable,maymaintainamenialservant;orhemaysometimesgotoaplayorapuppet-show,andsocontributehissharetowardsmaintainingonesetofunproductivelabourers;orhemaypaysometaxes,andthushelptomaintainanotherset,morehonourableanduseful,indeed,butequallyunproductive.Nopartoftheannualproduce,however,whichhadbeenoriginallydestinedtoreplaceacapital,iseverdirectedtowardsmaintainingunproductivehands,tillafterithasputintomotionitsfullcomplementofproductivelabour,orallthatitcouldputintomotioninthewayinwhichitwasemployed.Theworkmanmusthaveearnedhiswagesbyworkdone,beforehecanemployanypartoftheminthismanner.Thatparttooisgenerallybutasmallone.Itishissparerevenueonly,ofwhichproductivelabourershaveseldomagreatdeal.Theygenerallyhavesome,however;andinthepaymentoftaxes,thegreatnessoftheirnumbermaycompensate,insomemeasure,thesmallnessoftheircontribution.Therentoflandandtheprofitsofstockareeverywhere,therefore,theprincipalsourcesfromwhichunproductivehandsderivetheirsubsistence.Thesearethetwosortsofrevenueofwhichtheownershavegenerallymosttospare.Theymightbothmaintainindifferently,eitherproductiveorunproductivehands.Theyseem,however,tohavesomepredilectionforthelatter.Theexpenseofagreatlordfeedsgenerallymoreidlethanindustriouspeople.Therichmerchant,thoughwithhiscapitalhemaintainsindustriouspeopleonly,yetbyhisexpense,thatis,bytheemploymentofhisrevenue,hefeedscommonlytheverysamesortasthegreatlord.
Theproportion,therefore,betweentheproductiveandunproductivehands,dependsverymuchineverycountryupontheproportionbetweenthatpartoftheannualproduce,which,assoonasitcomeseitherfromtheground,orfromthehandsoftheproductivelabourers,isdestinedforreplacingacapital,andthatwhichisdestinedforconstitutingarevenue,eitherasrentorasprofit.Thisproportionisverydifferentinrichfromwhatitisinpoorcountries.Thus,atpresent,intheopulentcountriesofEurope,averylarge,frequentlythelargest,portionoftheproduceoftheland,isdestinedforreplacingthecapitaloftherichandindependentfarmer;theotherforpayinghisprofits,andtherentofthelandlord.Butanciently,duringtheprevalenceofthefeudalgovernment,averysmallportionoftheproducewassufficienttoreplacethecapitalemployedincultivation.Itconsistedcommonlyinafewwretchedcattle,maintainedaltogetherbythespontaneousproduceofuncultivatedland,andwhichmight,therefore,beconsideredasapartofthatspontaneousproduce.Itgenerally,too,belongedtothelandlord,
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