社交网络和大众传媒中英文对照外文翻译文献.docx
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社交网络和大众传媒中英文对照外文翻译文献.docx
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社交网络和大众传媒中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照翻译
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
SocialNetworksandtheMassMedia
Adaptedfrom:
AmericanPoliticalScienceReview,2013,107
Socialnetworkinghasbecomeaneverydaypartofmanypeoples’livesasevidencedbythehugeusercommunitiesthatarepartofsuchnetworks.Facebook,forinstance,waslaunchedinFebruary2004byHarvardundergraduatestudentsasanalternativetothetraditionalstudentdirectory.IntendedtocoverinteractionbetweenstudentsatUniversities–Facebookenablesindividualstoencourageotherstojointhenetworkthroughpersonalizedinvitations,friendsuggestionsandcreationofspecialistgroups.TodayFacebookhasamuchwidertakeupthanjuststudentsatUniversities.Facebooknowfacilitatesinteractionbetweenpeoplebyenablingsharingofcommoninterests,videos,photos,etc.Sharing,
Somesocialnetworkpopulationsexceedthatoflargecountries,forexampleFacebookhasover350millionactiveusers.Socialnetworksprovideaplatformtofacilitatecommunicationandsharingbetweenusers,inanattempttomodelrealworldrelationships.Socialnetworkinghasnowalsoextendedbeyondcommunicationbetweenfriends;forinstance,thereareamultitudeofintegratedapplicationsthatarenowmadeavailablebycompanies,andsomeorganizationsusesuchapplications,suchasFacebookConnecttoauthenticateusers,i.e.theyutilizeauser’sFacebookcredentialsratherthanrequiringtheirowncredentials(forexampletheCalgaryAirportauthorityinCanadausesFacebookConnecttograntaccesstotheirWiFinetwork).Thisabilitytocombineathirdpartyapplication(includingitslocaldata)toauthenticateusersdemonstratestheservice-orientedapproachtoapplicationdevelopment.Bytappingintoanalreadyestablishedcommunityaroundaparticularsocialnetworkingplatform,itbecomesunnecessarytorequireuserstoregisterwithanothersystem.
ThestructureofaSocialNetworkisessentiallytheformationofadynamicvirtualcommunitywithinherenttrustrelationshipsbetweenfriends.(Szmiginetal.,2006)identifyhow“relationshipmarketing”(identifiedasreferringtoallmarketingactivitiesdirectedtowardsestablishing,developingandmaintainingsuccessfulrelationalexchanges)canbefacilitatedthroughthecreationofon-linecommunities.Theydiscusshowon-linecommunitiescanbeusedtofacilitateinteractionandbondingbetweenconsumerandsuppliers,intermediatepartiesandspecificbrands.Similarly,(Shangetal.,2006)discusshowbrandloyaltycanbeachievedthroughvarioustypesofparticipationwithinanon-linecommunity(focusingspecificallyonthe–avirtualcommunityofAppleusersinTaiwan).Theydiscussthemotivationforindividualstopromotecertainproductsduringon-linediscussions(activeparticipants)andforotherstoremainaslurkers(passiveparticipants).Thestudyparticularlyfocusesontheincentivesforparticipantstocontributetoanon-linecommunity,basedontheperceptionofauseraboutthedegreeofrelevancetowardsanobjectthatisbeingdiscussed–focusingonbothcognitive(basedonutilitarianmotive–concerninganindividual’sconcernwiththecostandbenefitoftheproductorservice)andaffective(avalue-expressivemotive,referringtoanindividual’sinterestinenhancingself-esteemorself-conception,andinprojectinghis/herdesiredself-imagetotheoutsideworldthroughtheproductorservice).
Itisalsousefultounderstand,forinstance,howsuchtrustrelationshipscouldbeusedasafoundationforresource(information,hardware,services)sharing.Cloudenvironmentsaretypicallyfocusedonprovidinglowlevelabstractionsofcomputationorstorage.Usingthisapproach,auserisabletoaccess(onashortterm/rentalbasis)capacitythatisownedbyanotherpersonorbusiness(generallyoveracomputernetwork).Inthisway,auserisabletooutsourcetheircomputingrequirementstoanexternalprovider–limitingtheirexposuretocostassociatedwithsystemsmanagementandenergyuse.ComputationandStorageCloudsarecomplementaryandactasbuildingblocksfromwhichapplicationscanbeconstructed–usingatechniquereferredtoas“mash-ups”.StorageCloudsaregainingpopularityasawaytoextendthecapabilitiesofstorage-limiteddevicessuchasphonesandothermobiledevices.TherearealsoamultitudeofcommercialCloudproviderssuchasAmazonEC2/S3,GoogleAppEngine,MicrosoftAzureandalsomanysmallerscaleopencloudslikeNimbus(Keaheyetal.,2005)andEucalyptus(Nurmietal.,2009).ASocialCloud(Chardetal.,2010),ontheotherhand,isascalablecomputingmodelinwhichvirtualizedresourcescontributedbyusersaredynamicallyprovisionedamongstagroupoffriends.Compensationforuseisoptionalasusersmaywishtoshareresourceswithoutpayment,andratherutilizeareciprocalcredit(orbarter)basedmodel(Andradeetal.,2010).InbothcasesguaranteesareofferedthroughcustomizedServiceLevelAgreements(SLAs).Inasense,thismodelissimilartoaVolunteercomputingapproach,inthatfriendsshareresourcesamongsteachotherforlittletonogain.However,unlikeVolunteermodelsthereisinherentaccountabilitythroughexistingfriendrelationships.Thereareanumberofadvantagesgainedbyleveragingsocialnetworkingplatforms,inparticularonecangainaccesstohugeusercommunities,canexploitexistingusermanagementfunctionality,andrelyonpre-establishedtrustformedthroughexistinguserrelationships.
TheauthorthanksJasonBarabas,JonBendor,TedCarmines,JamieDruckman,JohnFreeman,MattGolder,SonaGolder,BobJackson,JennJerit,KrisKanthak,?
zgeKemahlioglu,CharlotteLee,ValerieMartinez-Ebers,AdamMeirowitz,ScottMcClurg,WillMoore,ChrisReenock,JohnRyan,JohnScholz,JakeShapiro,AnandSokhey,JeffStaton,JimStimson,CraigVolden,JonWoon,fourveryhelpfulanonymousreviewers,andaudiencesinthePoliticalEconomicsgroupattheStanfordGSB,PoliticalSciencedepartmentsatFSU,GWU,Minnesota,Pittsburgh,andStonyBrook,andtheFrankBattenSchoolofLeadershipandPublicPolicyatUVa.Anyerrorsaremyown.
Tobegintoanswerthisquestion,Idevelopanoveltheoryofaggregateopinionandbehavior.Thetheoryconsidersaheterogeneouspopulationofindividualswhomustchoosebetweendichotomousoptions.Itincorporatestheinteractionofsocialnetworkandmassmediainfluencesattheindividuallevel;itskeyassumptionisthatthemoreotherschooseanoption,themoreoneisapttodosoaswell.Inthetheory,socialnetworksprovideinformationaboutthechoicesofthosetowhomoneisdirectlyconnected,whilethemassmediaprovide(potentiallybiased)informationaboutaggregatechoice.Thetheorythusappliesto,forexample,voterturnoutandpoliticalparticipation(e.g.,Gerber,Green,andLarimer2008;LakeandHuckfeldt1998;Leighley1990;McClurg2003;Rolfe2012),opinionformation(e.g.,Becketal.2002;DruckmanandNelson2003;HuckfeldtandSprague1995),protestsandsocialmovements(e.g.,Kuran1991;McAdam1986),andvotechoice(e.g.,Beck2002;HuckfeldtandSprague1995;Ryan2011;Sinclair2012;SokheyandMcClurg2012).
Threemajorresultsfollowfromthistheory.Allholdbothwhenindividualstreatmediaidenticallyandwhentheyselectintomediainlinewiththeirpreferences.First,understandingtheaggregateeffectofthemediagenerallyrequiresconsideringsocialnetworks,becausesocialnetworkstructureconditionsmedia'simpact.Forexample,additionalweaktiesbetweendisparatesocialgroupscanreducethemedia'simpact,andthepresenceofunifiedsocialelitescaneliminatethemedia'simpactentirelyintheaggregate.Empiricalstudiesofmediaimpactthatfailtoconsidermedia'sinteractionwithsocialnetworksriskbias.
Second,socialnetworkscanamplifytheeffectofmediabias.Abiasedmediaoutletthatsystematicallyunder-orover-reportsapollofthepopulationbyaonlyafewpercentagepointscaninsomecasesswingaggregatebehavior(e.g.,turnoutorvoteshare)byover20%ineitherdirectionduetopositivefeedbackwithinthenetwork.Openadvocatesinthemediacanhaveayetlargerimpactevenwhennotcomparativelyinfluential.Unifiedsocialeliteslimittheeffectofmediabias,butcannotfullycounteranadvocate;selectionintomedia,madeevereasierwithtechnologicalimprovements,tendstoenhancetheeffectofbias.Weshouldthereforeexpectmediabiastobecomeincreasinglyimportanttoaggregatebehavior.
ANINDIVIDUAL-LEVELTHEORYOFAGGREGATEBEHAVIOR
ThoughIpresentatheoryofaggregatebehavior,itisbasedonindividual-levelassumptionsinformedbywhatweknowaboutthewaypersonalcharacteristics,socialnetworks,andmassmediaoutletsaffectindividualbehavior.Duetothis,thetheorycanexploretheeffectthatinteractionsbetweenthesethreefactorshaveonaggregatebehavior.Asimportantly,thetheoryincorporatesempiricallyrealisticheterogeneityacrosspeopleinall
threefactors.
Additionally,peopleareexposedtoindividuals,groups,andorganizationsexternaltoone'snetwork,suchasmassmediaoutlets,statepropaganda,nationalpartyleaders,NGOs,andInternetpersonalities.Theseoutletscanprovideinformation,increasingpoliticalknowledge.
Asthissmallsamplingoflargeliteraturesindicates,individuals'decisionsareinfluencedbytheinformationtheyobtainviabothlocalsocialnetworksandglobalmediaoutlets.However,comparativelylittlescholarshiphasexploredthethree-wayinteractionofpersonalcharacteristics,socialnetworks,andmedia
Inthesecondtypeofbias,whichIcalladvocacy,themediaoutletsimplystatesapreferenceforoneoftheoptions,providingnoinformationaboutaggregatesu
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