Japanese Railway History 6窄轨变准轨.docx
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Japanese Railway History 6窄轨变准轨.docx
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JapaneseRailwayHistory6窄轨变准轨
JapaneseRailwayHistory6
UpgradingNarrowGaugeStandards
ShinichiKato
Whentherailwayswerenationalizedbetween1906and1907,theskeletonofthenationwidetrunkrailnetworkwasnearlycompleted,asmandatedintheRailwayConstructionActof1892.Attheendof1907,nationalizedrailwaylinesinoperationtotalled7,165km.Constructioncontinuedand2,677kmoflinewereaddedbytheendof1919.Inadditiontoactivelineexpansion,thefirstdecadeafterthenationalizationuptothe1910swascharacterizedbyvigorouseffortstoimprovethequalityoffacilities.
Thenationalizationofrailwayswasaccomplishedbymerginggovernment-ownedrailwaysand17privaterailways.Thefacilitiesandequipmentvariedwidelyinleveloftechnologyduetodifferenthistoriesofimportsandmanagementpolicy.Somelargeprivaterailwayshadpoorfacilitiesandequipment.Insomecases,differentinterconnectedrailwaysdidnotallowthroughoperationoffreightcars.Thus,technicalunificationwasanimportantgoaltocompletethenationalization,andservedasthebasisoffurtherimprovement.
Unificationofstandardsandgaugeswasaccomplishedbyincorporatingthelatesttechnologies.TheprocesswasconcurrentwiththeindustrialrevolutioninJapan,whichoccurredbetweenthe1890sandthe1900s,followedbytheburgeoningoftheheavyandchemicalindustriesinthe1910s.Rapiddevelopmentofrailwaytechnologyformedanintegralpartoftheindustrializationprocessandboostedtransportcapacitysignificantly.Governmentrailways,agiganticindustrialcustomer,alsohadanengineeringarmcoveringbasicresearchandmanufacturing,whichleddevelopmentofJapaneserailwaytechnologyandmodernizationoftherailindustry.
ImprovementofRailroadFacilitiesandEquipment
Amajorevent,whichundoubtedlycontributedtothedevelopmentofrailwaytechnologyinthe1910s,wasthedebateontheuseofstandardgauge(1435mm).Althoughstandardgaugewasnotformallyadopted,itwaspersistentlyadvocatedbymanyintherailwayindustry,andthedebatespurredextensiveresearchreconfirmingthedisadvantagesofnarrowgauge.Inotherwords,therailwayauthoritytriedtoensuretheupgradingofrailroadfacilitiesbyadoptingtechnicalstandardsequivalenttothoseforstandardgaugeasfaraspossiblewithintherestraintsofthenarrowgauge.
Constructiongauge,loadinggauge,distancebetweentrackcentres,bridgespecifications,andotherstandardswereestablishedonthebasisofstandardgauge.Forexample,standardsforaxleswereadoptedtoeliminatetheneedforreplacement,atconversiontostandardgauge,whichincidentallybroughtsidebenefitsofbetterridingstabilityandcomfort.
AnothernotableimprovementwaseliminatingsteepgradescommonlyassociatedwithJapaneserailways.OntheTokaidoLine,forexample,thereweremanysections(1in40)consistingofcontinuous25permillgrades,andreroutingwascarriedouttoreducethemto10permill(1in100)levels,includingexcavationoflongtunnels.OneofthemostmemorableworkswasconstructionoftheTannaTunnelconnectingAtamiandNumazu,designedtoavoidthemountainrouteviaHakone,whichconstitutedthelargestbottlenecktothereductionoftraveltimeontheTokaidoLine.Excavationofthe7,804-mtunnelfacednumerousobstaclesasitadvancedthroughvolcaniczonescharacterizedbysoftformationsandwaterseepage,aswellasamajorfault,untilitscompletionin1934.Intheprocess,thereweremanysacrificesandtragedies,togetherwithheroicepisodes,whichformthesubjectofvariousnovelsanddramas.Clearly,constructionoftheTannaTunnelstandsasamilestoneformajorprojectsinpre-warJapan.
Ontheotherhand,useofheavyrailsprogressedatamuchslowerrate.60-pound(30kg)railswereselectedasstandardrailsin1906,with75pounds(37kg)beingusedinsomesections.Theuseof100-pound(50kg)railshadtowaituntil1922.Also,nosystematiceffortwasmadetoeasetightcurves.
Thus,standardizationoftheJapanesenarrowgaugerailsystemprogressedtoachieverelativelyhighloadinggauge,whileremainingstructurallyvulnerableinmanyaspectscomparedtointernationalstandards.Doubletrackingworkwasdelayed,whileelectrificationoftrunklinesdidnotprogresstothefullextent.Meanwhile,todevelopacomprehensivetransportationsystemsupplementingtheinsufficientcapacityofrailwaysbycoastalshipping,regionalportsandharboursaswellaswater-landinterfaceswereconstructed.
EvolutionofRollingStockTechnology
Atnationalization,therewereapproximately2,000locomotivesof190modelsinJapan.ThemajorityweremadeintheUSAandUK,eachofwhichheldroughlyequalshares,followedbyGermany(20%),andtheremainingnumberwerebuiltdomestically.Theirperformancevariedwidelymakingitdifficulttodeploythemaccordingtoactualneedsortodevelopanationwidetransportationsystem.Althoughlocalworksweremanufacturinglocomotivesbytheendofthe1890s,therewasstillstrongdemandforforeignlocomotives,partlybecausetheindustrycouldnotreducemanufacturingcostsbymassproductionbecauseorderscamefromawiderangeofcustomerswithdifferentspecification.
Afternationalization,Governmentrailwayspurchasedafewlargetender2C1typelocomotivesfromtheUK,theUSA,andGermany.Theydevelopeddomesticstandardlocomotivesbasedontheseimports.Afterestablishingstandardsandmanufacturingmethodsa1Ctypelocomotiveforexpresspassengertrains(Class8620)anda1Dtypelocomotiveforfreighttrains(Class9600)werecompleted.The8620wasrelativelysmallandlightweightandrepresentedarealisticdesignforactualgradesandcurves.Itsmaximumspeedwaslimitedto85km/hbasedontrackstandards.The9600hadafireboxabovethedrivingwheelsprovidingmoretractiveforcefromabiggerboiler.Upuntil1926,620unitsofthe8620,and770unitsofthe9600wereproducedanddeployednationwide.
AfterWorldWarI,twonewmodelsweredevelopedtomeetrapidly-growingtrafficvolumesontrunklines,the18900(laterrenamedC51)forpassengertrainsandthe9900(D50)forfreighttraffic.Theformerwasdesignedtoachieveperformanceequivalenttothatavailableonstandardgauge.Itadoptedthe2C1axlelayout,thenstandardforexpresspassengerlocomotivesinEuropeandtheUSA,anditsdrivingwheelshadadiameterof1750mm,thelargestofthenarrow-gaugelocomotivesintheworld.Atotalof289unitsweremanufacturedafter1919andmainlyintroducedtotrunklinesincludingtheTokaidoandSanyo.In1930C51startedhauling“Tsubame”limitedexpresstrainontheTokaidoLineconnectingTokyoandOsakain8hoursand20minutes.ThetrainlongservedasthestarofJapaneserailwaysandreliedontheC51'soutstandingperformance.In1934,completionoftheTannaTunnelreducedthetraveltimeto8hours.Ontheotherhand,the9900withthe1D1axlelayoutwasbuiltfrom1923,totaling380units.Thelocomotivebroughtabreakthroughinfreighttransportbyincreasinghaulingcapacityon10permill(1in100)gradesto950tons,comparedto600tonsofferedbythe9600.
Thefirststandardpassengercarriagewasdesignedin1910.TheAmerican-style,walk-through,center-aisle,wooden(steelbodyusedafter1928),bogiecardominatedtheindustryformanyyears.
Freightcarsbeforenationalizationmostlyhadaloadingcapacityof7to8tons.After1913,10-toncarswereadoptedasthestandardandexistingcarsweremodifiedtohelpboosttransportcapacity.Theshiftto15-toncarswasinitiatedin1914.
Thegovernmentrailwayssetapolicytoestablishtechnicalstandardsforrollingstockbyjointdevelopmentwithmanufacturerswhowereresponsibleforproduction,whiletherailwayoperatedrepairshops.Asaresult,largemanufacturersaccumulatedtechnicalandproductionability.
Themostnotableinnovationsimprovingtransportationefficiencywereairbrakesandautomaticcouplers.In1919,thegovernmentrailwaysdecidedtouseairbrakesinplaceoftraditionalvacuumbrakesandstartedtodevelopalocalmodelonthebasisoftechnologyfromWesting-house.Allfreightcarswereequippedwithpneumaticbrakesby1930,followedbypassengercarsin1931.Similarly,theuseofAmerican-typeautomaticcouplerswasdecidedin1919.Freightcarspresentedaproblemforreplacementbecausetheytravelledalloverthecountryandwerecoupledfreely.Itwasdecidedtoreplacecouplersinthefieldandatothersitesnationwideonthesameday,17July1926(20JulyforKyushu).Tofacilitatereplacement,automaticcouplersweretemporarilyfixedto41,661freightcarsinadvanceandsuccessfullytookoveronthepresetdates.Fromthehugeamountofworkinvolved,itwasanotableeventinworldrailhistory.
Photo:
9600Locomotive
(TransportationMuseum)
Photo:
8620Locomotive
(TransportationMuseum)
Photo:
Class9900(D50)atYamakitaDepotonOldTokaidoRoute
(TransportationMuseum)
Photo:
Class18900(C51)hauling Tsubame TestTrain
(TransportationMuseum)
EnhancementofRailwayFacilitiesinTokyoArea
MasterplansforrailnetworksinurbanizedareasofTokyowereestablishedundercityplansinthe1880s.However,thenetworkswereincompleteatnationalization,andthecompletionandestablishmentofoperationsystemswerelefttothegovernmentrailways.Infact,managementpolicywasfocussedonestablishmentandoperationofnationwiderailnetworks,anddidnotfeelresponsibilityfordevelopingthepublictransportationnetworkintheTokyometropolitanarea.Nevertheless,thegovernmentrailwayswithlargecapitalandtechnicalcapabilityinevitablyplayedadecisiveroleindevelopingurbantransportationinTokyo.
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