语言学资料 linguistics and language.docx
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语言学资料 linguistics and language.docx
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语言学资料linguisticsandlanguage
Chapter1LinguisticsandLanguage
◆TeachingObjectives
✓Toknowthescopeoflinguisticsroughly
✓Tounderstandthedefinition,thedesignfeaturesandthefunctionsoflanguageindetails
✓Tohavesomeideasaboutseveralimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticstudy
◆TimeArrangement
✓Altogether2periods.
1.1WhatisLinguistics?
1.1.1DefinitionsofLinguistics(p.1)
◆Linguisticsisthescienceoflanguage.
◆Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.
◆Linguisticsisadisciplinethatdescribesallaspectsoflanguageandformulatetheoriesastohowlanguageworks.
◆Inlinguistics,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation.Thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.
◆Theprocessoflinguisticstudy:
observinglinguisticfacts(displayingsome
similarities)&makinggeneralizationsformulatinghypothesesbasedonthegeneralizationstestingthehypothesesrepeatedlybyfurtherobservationstofullyprovetheirvalidityconstructingalinguistictheory
1.1.2TheScopeofLinguistics(p.2)
1.1.2.1Mainbranchesoflinguistics(phonological,morphological,syntactic,semantic&pragmatic)
Phonetics–thestudyofhumanspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatishowspeechsoundsaremade,transmittedandreceived,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,wordsandconnectedspeech,etc.
Phonology--hestudyofsoundpattering,therulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllable
Morphology–concernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.
Syntax–thestudyofsentencestructure,thearrangementofwords.
Semantics–thestudyofmeaning.
Pragmatics–thestudyofmeaningincontext.
1.1.2.2Macrolinguistics宏观语言学(p.3)
Linguisticsisnottheonlyfieldconcernedwithlanguage.Languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon,it’sasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironmentbyhumanbeings.Therefore,thestudyoflanguagehasestablishedcloselinkswithotherbranchesofsciencesorsocialstudies,resultinginsomeinterdisciplinarybranchesoflinguisticstudy.
Sociolinguistics–thestudyofthecharacteristicsoflanguagevarieties,thecharacteristics
oftheirfunctions,andthecharacteristicsoftheirspeakers.
Psycholinguistics–thestudyabouthowhumanslearnlanguageandtherelationshipof
linguisticbehaviorandthepsychologicalprocessesinproducingandunderstandinglanguage.
Appliedlinguistics–1)thestudyoftheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandmethodsto
otherfields
2)theapplicationoflinguistictheories,methods,andfindingstothe
studyoflanguagelearningandteaching.
Neurolinguistics–thestudyofthefunctionofthebraininlanguagedevelopmentanduse
inhumanbeings,examiningthebrain’scontrolovertheprocessesof
speechandunderstanding.
Anthropologicallinguistics–thestudyofvariationanduseinrelationtothecultural
patternsandbeliefsofhumanrace;thestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureinacommunity,e.g.itstraditions,beliefs,andfamilystructure.
Computationallinguistics–thestudyoflanguageusingthetechniquesandconceptsof
computerscience,thebasicgoalofwhichisto“teach”computerstogenerateandcomprehendgrammatically-acceptablesentences.,including:
Machinetranslation–(MT)theuseofcomputersoftwaretotranslatetextsfromonenaturallanguagetoanother.Atitsbasiclevel,MTperformssimplesubstitutionofwordsinonenaturallanguageforwordsinanother.
(Computer-aided)corpuslinguistics–dealingwiththeprinciplesandpracticeofusingcorporainlanguagestudy.Usually,acomputercorpusisalargebodyofmachine-readabletexts.
1.1.3SomeDistinctionsinLinguistics
Thesedistinctionscanhelptounderstandthedifferencebetweenmodernlinguisticsandthelinguisticsbeforethe20thcenturyandtogainageneralunderstandingofthenatureoflinguisticinquiryandtheaimsandapproachesinlinguistics.
ThebeginningofmodernlinguisticsismarkedbythepublicationofF.deSaussure’sbook“CourseinGeneralLinguistics”intheearly20thcentury.BeforethatlanguagehadbeenstudiedforcenturiesinEuropebysuchscholarsasphilosophersandgrammarians.Thegeneralapproachthustraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguageovertheyearsisroughlyreferredtoas“traditionalgrammar”.
Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways.
1.1.3.1Prescriptivevs.Descriptive(p.3)
----purposesofprescriptiveanddescriptivelinguisticstudy
Prescriptive:
aimtolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay;preferabsolutestandardofcorrectness;relyheavilyonrulesofgrammar
Descriptive:
aimtodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,beit“correct”ornot
----transferofattention:
Earlierstudy:
prescriptive,basedon“high”(religious.Literary)writtenlanguage,settingmodelsforlanguageuserstofollow
Modernlinguistics:
mostlydescriptive,morescientificandobjective
----difference(divergence)ofopinion
1.1.3.2Synchronicvs.Diachronic(p.4)
----conceptofsynchronicanddiachronic
Synchronicstudy:
thedescriptionofaparticularstateofalanguageatasinglepointoftime
Diachronicstudy:
thedescriptionofthehistoricaldevelopmentofalanguageovera
periodoftime
----transferofattention:
Inthe19thcentury:
primarilyofthediachronicdescription
Inthe20thcentury:
thepriorityofthesynchronicdescriptionoverthediachroniconebecausewithoutthesuccessfulstudyonthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiods,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment
1.1.3.3Speechvs.Writing(p.4)
----transferofemphasis:
Traditionalgrammarians:
overstresstheimportanceofthewrittenword
Modernlinguists:
regardthespokenlanguageasprimaryandmaintainthatwritingis
essentiallyameansofrepresentingspeechinanothermedium
----blurreddistinctionbetweenspeechandwritingwithmoderntechnology
Publicspeecheswritteninadvanceandreadoutorally;
Chattingoninternetwhiletypingonthecomputerscreen;
Readingintheformofmovingtext,linefollowinglineupthescreen
1.1.3.4Languevs.Parole(p.4)
----proposedbytheSwisslinguistF.deSaussureintheearly20thcentury
----conceptoflangueandparole
LangueParole
1)theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbytherealizationoflangueinactualuse
allthemembersofaspeechcommunity
2)thesetofconventionsandruleswhichtheconcreteuseoftheconventionsand
languageusersallhavetoabidebytheapplicationoftherules
3)abstract,notthelanguagepeopleactuallyconcrete,thenaturallyoccurring
uselanguageevents
4)relativelystable,donotchangefrequentlyvaryfrompersontoperson,andfrom
situationtosituation
----transferofattentioninthelinguisticstudy:
langueparoleinthelatterpartofthe20thcentury(recognizingvarietieswithinlanguages,socialandregionaldialects,registers,styles,andsoon)
----objectiontothedistinction:
Skinnerfromastrictlybehavioristicpointofview
1.1.3.5Competencevs.Performance(p.5)
----proposedbytheAmericanlinguistNoamChomskyinthelate1950’sandsimilartoSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparole
----conceptofcompetenceandperformance
Competence:
theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage
Performance:
theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication
AccordingtoChomsky,aspeakerhasinternalizedasetofrulesabouthislanguage,whichenableshimtoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.Despitehisperfectknowledgeofhisownlangue,aspeakercanstillmakemistakesinactualuse,e.g.,slipsofthetongue,andunnecessarypauses.Thisimperfectperformanceiscausedbysocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,anxiety,andembarrassment.
----similarideaspossessedbyChomskyandSaussure
Boththinkthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheknowledgeoflanguage,langueor
competence,theunderlyingsystemofrulesthathasbeenmasteredbythespeaker-hearer.Althoughaspeaker-hearerpossessestherulesandappliestheminactualuse,hecannottellexactlywhattheserulesare.Sothetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifytheserules.
----differencebetweenChomsky’sdistinctionandSaussure’s
Saussure:
takingasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueissocially
shared,commonknowledge,amatterofsocialconventions.
Chomsky:
examininglanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandcompetenceis
apsychologicalphenomenon,ageneticendowmentineachindividual,a
propertyofthemindofeachindividual.
1.1.3.6Traditionalgrammarvs.Modernlinguistics(p.5)
◆modernlinguistics---
descriptive;
spokenlanguageasprimary;
notLatin-basedframework
◆traditionalgrammar---
prescriptive;
writtenlanguageasprimary;
Latin-basedframework
1.2WhatisLanguage?
1.2.1DefinitionsofLanguage
Øp.7
ØSomeadditionalones:
Languageisthemostfrequentlyusedandmosthighlydevelopedformofhumancommunicationwepossess.
语言是音义结合的词汇和语法的体系,是人类最重要的工具,是人类思维的工具,也是社会上传递信息的工具。
ØEachofthosedefinitionshasitsownspecialemphasis,andisnottotallyfreefromlimitations.
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