语言学.docx
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语言学.docx
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语言学
Courseinlinguistics
1.Designfeaturesoflanguage(P9):
1)Arbitrariness(随意性):
Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.
2)Duality(双重性):
Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures:
Soundv.s.character
3)Creativity(创造性):
Characterstoformnewwords
Wordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthings
Createaninfinitenumberofsentences.
4)Displacement(取代性):
Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.
5)Culturaltransmission(文化传播性):
Languageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.
6)Interchangeability(可互换性):
Anyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.
2.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds(P20):
1) classificationofEnglishconsonants:
①Themannerofarticulation:
Stops/plosives(completeobstruction):
[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g];
Fricatives擦音(partialobstruction):
[f],[v],[s],[z],[ʃ],[ʒ],[θ],[ð],[h];
Affricates塞擦音(obstructionfromcompletetopartial):
[ʧ],[ʤ];
Nasals(loweringsoftpalate):
[m],[n],[ŋ];
Liquids流音(soundmovesfromtongue):
[l](lateral),[r](curvethetongue);
Glides滑音/semivowels:
[w](movefromlips),[j](movefromtonguetohardpalate).
②Theplaceofarticulation
bilabial:
[p],[b],[m],[w];
labiodental:
[f],[v];
dental:
[θ],[ð];
Alveolar齿龈:
[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r];
palatal:
[ʃ],[ʒ],[ʧ],[ʤ],[j];
Velar软腭:
[k],[g],[ŋ];
Glottal喉音:
[h].
2)classificationofEnglishvowels
①Monophthongsorpure/singlevowels
[i:
],[i],[e],[æ],[з:
],[з],[ʌ][u:
],[u],[ɔ:
],[ɔ],[a:
],
Diphthongsorglidingvowels
ei,ai,əu,au,ɔi,iə,ɛə,uə
②frontvowels:
[i:
],[i],[e],[æ],[a]
centralvowels(betweensoftandhardpalate):
[з:
],[з],[ʌ]
backvowels:
tonguemovestowardshardpalate
[u:
],[u],[ɔ:
],[ɔ],[a:
]
③theopennessofthemouth:
Close:
[i:
],[i],[u:
],[u]
Semi-close:
[e],[з:
],
Semi-open:
[з],[ɔ:
];
Open:
[æ],[a],[∧],[ɔ],[a:
]
④unroundedvowelsandroundedvowels
⑤longvowelsandshortvowels
3.Phonetics(语音学)&phonology(音位学)(P22)
∙Bothareconcernedwiththespeechsounds.
∙Phoneticsisofgeneralnature:
howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.
∙Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareputtogethertoconveymeaning.
4.Phone(音位),phoneme(音素),allophone(音位变体)(P23)
∙Aphone----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.[]
∙Aphoneme----isaphonologicalunit;itisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext.// /p/
∙Allophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.
eg:
[ph]peak[p]speak----音位 是/p/的音位变体
Phoneme phoneallophone
∙/l/:
[l](leave),[ɫ](school)
∙/n/:
[n](Ken),[n]need
5.Somerulesofphonology(P25)
Sequentialrules(序列)----therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“k b i I” mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Pat,apt,tap;lead,deal
Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel:
load
∙[n]isfollowedbyavowel:
need
Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,e.g.spring,strict
∙ a) thefirstphonememustbe/s/,
∙ b) thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,
∙ c) thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.
Assimilationrule(同化)----assimilatesneighboringsoundby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:
Eg:
input
Deletionrule(吞音)---ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.
∙Pronounceonlyonewhentwoconsonantscometogether:
roll,spell,illegal
6.Stress(强调)(P27)
Wordstress(ondifferentsyllables)
Present,import,increase,record
Sentencestress
Heismyson.
Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.
7.Morphemes-----theminimalunitsofmeaning(P32)
1)Freemorpheme(自由语素)&boundmorpheme(粘着语素)
Freemorpheme----isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,
Freemorphemescanformnewwordsbyjoiningwithotherfreemorphemes:
nrain+coat=raincoat water+mark=watermark
Boundmorpheme----onethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.
prefixes,suffixesandinfixes
nnumberfornouns
ncasefornounsandpronouns
ntenseandpersonforverbs
ndegreesofcomparisonforadjectives
∙mono-morphemewordsandcompoundwordsareformedallbyfreemorphemes.
derivewordsareformedbyarootandboundmorphemes.
2)Derivationalmorpheme(派生语素)&inflectionalmorpheme(曲折语素)
Derivationalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern---modernize, length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.改变词义
Inflectionalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,case,degreeandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,不改变词义e.g.
a)number:
tables apples cars
b)personandtense:
talk/talks/talking/talked
c)case格:
John/John’s
d)comparative/superlativedegree:
faster/fastest
3)wordstructures:
Replacements
replacement s
replace ment ----- immediateconstituentsoftheformononelevelabove
re place ------ultimateconstituents
Somefrequentlyusedmorphologicalrules
∙1.un-+adj.→adj. 2.n.+-ful→adj.
∙3.v.+-able→adj. 4.n.+-ly→adj.
∙5.adj.+-ly→adv. 6.adj.+-ness→n.
∙7.v.+-ment→n. 8.re-+v.→v.
∙9.in-/il-/ir-/im-+adj.→adj.
∙10.v.+-ence/-ance/-ency/-ancy→n.
∙11.dis-+v.→v. 12.adj./n.+-en→v.
∙13.en-+adj./n.→v. 14.adj.+-ize→v.
∙15.de-+v.→v. 16.n./adj.+-ify→v.
Eg:
1.enlargement 2.disapproval 3.tastelessness
∙4.untouchable 5.decentralized
8.Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyplacinga“+”betweeneachmorphemeandthenext(P40):
a.microfilm b.bedraggled c.announcement
d.predigestion e.telecommunication f.forefather
g.psychophysics h.mechanist
9Word-levelcategories(P43)
∙Majorlexicalcategories:
N,V,Adj,Prep.
∙MinorLexicalcategories:
Determiner:
a,an,the,this…
Degreewords:
quite,very,more,so…
Qualifier(frequency):
often,seldom…
Auxiliary:
should,can,may…
Conjunction:
and,but,or
10.树形图XP→(Specifier)(Modifier)X(Complement)(Modifier)
11.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning(P63)
nTheconceptualistview
nContextualism(Bloomfield)
nBehaviorism
1) Theconceptualistview:
Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld)
OgdenandRichards:
semantictriangle
Thought/reference指称/concept concept
Symbol/Linguisticform Referent特指 word Indirect thing
2) Thecontextualism
n Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context
n Empiricalorobservableinsteadoftheoreticalaspect
n Twotypesofcontexts:
Situationalcontext:
spatiotemporalsituation
Linguisticcontext:
theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.
n eg.,“black”inblackhair&blacktea,orblacksheep
“blue”inbluesky&bluemusic
3) Behaviorism-Bloomfield
Psycholinguistics
thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponsefromthehearer
ThestoryofJackandJill:
“I’mthirsty.”
Jill Jack
Symbol____Jack’sresponse-stimulus__Referent
12.Majorsenserelations(P66简答题,定义,分类)
n Synonymy
n Antonymy
n Polysemy
n Homonymy
n Hyponymy
1) Synonymy(sameness)
Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.
eg.buyvs.purchase
LittleTom___atoycar.
Theclient___3,000toybearsfromthecompany.
①Dialectallydifferentsynonyms(BrEvs.AmE)p.67
e.g.autumn-fall,petrol–gasoline
②Stylisticallydifferent(degreeofformality)
e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence
③Collocationallydifferent
e.g.accuse…of,charge…with
⑤Semanticallydifferent
e.g.preserve,conserve,reserve
2)Antonymy(oppositeness)
n Gradableantonyms等级反义词e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,good-bad
n Complementaryantonyms互补性反义词e.g.alive-dead,male-female,man-woman,pass-fail,boy-girleg.Heisaman(notawoman).Heisalive(notdead)
n Relationalopposites关系对立词exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,no“positive-negative”relationship
e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient
3)Polysemy一词多义
Polysemy----thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.“tab
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