l14ethicsinresearch研究生课后练习整理.docx
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l14ethicsinresearch研究生课后练习整理.docx
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l14ethicsinresearch研究生课后练习整理
Whenmostpeoplethinkofethics(ormorals),theythinkofrulesfordistinguishingbetweenrightandwrong,suchastheGoldenRule("Dountoothersasyouwouldhavethemdountoyou"),acodeofprofessionalconductliketheHippocraticOath("Firstofall,donoharm"),areligiouscreedliketheTenCommandments("ThouShaltnotkill..."),orawiseaphorismslikethesayingsofConfucius.Thisisthemostcommonwayofdefining"ethics":
normsforconduct thatdistinguishbetweenacceptableandunacceptablebehavior.
Mostpeoplelearnethicalnormsathome,atschool,inchurch,orinothersocialsettings.Althoughmostpeopleacquiretheirsenseofrightandwrongduringchildhood,moraldevelopmentoccursthroughoutlifeandhumanbeingspassthroughdifferentstagesofgrowthastheymature.Ethicalnormsaresoubiquitousthatonemightbetemptedtoregardthemassimplecommonsense.Ontheotherhand,ifmoralitywerenothingmorethancommonsense,thenwhyaretheresomanyethicaldisputesandissuesinoursociety?
Oneplausibleexplanationofthesedisagreementsisthatallpeoplerecognizesomecommonethicalnormsbutdifferentindividualsinterpret,apply,andbalancethesenormsindifferentwaysinlightoftheirownvaluesandlifeexperiences.
Mostsocietiesalsohavelegalrulesthatgovernbehavior,butethicalnormstendtobebroaderandmoreinformalthanlaws.Althoughmostsocietiesuselawstoenforcewidelyacceptedmoralstandardsandethicalandlegalrulesusesimilarconcepts,itisimportanttorememberthatethicsandlawarenotthesame.Anactionmaybelegalbutunethicalorillegalbutethical.Wecanalsouseethicalconceptsandprinciplestocriticize,evaluate,propose,orinterpretlaws.Indeed,inthelastcentury,manysocialreformersurgedcitizenstodisobeylawsinordertoprotestwhattheyregardedasimmoralorunjustlaws.Peacefulcivildisobedienceisanethicalwayofexpressingpoliticalviewpoints.
Anotherwayofdefining'ethics'focusesonthe disciplinesthatstudy standardsofconduct,suchasphilosophy,theology,law,psychology,orsociology.Forexample,a"medicalethicist"issomeonewhostudiesethicalstandardsinmedicine.Onemayalsodefineethicsasa method,procedure,orperspectivefordecidinghowtoactandforanalyzingcomplexproblemsandissues.Forinstance,inconsideringacomplexissuelikeglobalwarming,onemaytakeaneconomic,ecological,political,orethicalperspectiveontheproblem.Whileaneconomistmightexaminethecostandbenefitsofvariouspoliciesrelatedtoglobalwarming,anenvironmentalethicistcouldexaminetheethicalvaluesandprinciplesatstake.
Manydifferentdisciplines,institutions,andprofessionshavenormsforbehaviorthatsuittheirparticularaimsandgoals.Thesenormsalsohelpmembersofthedisciplinetocoordinatetheiractionsoractivitiesandtoestablishthepublic'strustofthediscipline.Forinstance,ethicalnormsgovernconductinmedicine,law,engineering,andbusiness.Ethicalnormsalsoservetheaimsorgoalsofresearchandapplytopeoplewhoconductscientificresearchorotherscholarlyorcreativeactivities.Thereisevenaspecializeddiscipline,researchethics,whichstudiesthesenorms.
Thereareseveralreasonswhyitisimportanttoadheretoethicalnormsinresearch.First,norms promotetheaimsofresearch,suchasknowledge,truth,andavoidanceoferror.Forexample,prohibitionsagainstfabricating,falsifying,ormisrepresentingresearchdatapromotethetruthandavoiderror.Second,sinceresearchofteninvolvesagreatdealofcooperationandcoordinationamongmanydifferentpeopleindifferentdisciplinesandinstitutions,ethicalstandardspromotethe valuesthatareessentialtocollaborativework,suchastrust,accountability,mutualrespect,andfairness.Forexample,manyethicalnormsinresearch,suchasguidelinesforauthorship,copyrightandpatentingpolicies,datasharingpolicies,andconfidentialityrulesinpeerreview,aredesignedtoprotectintellectualpropertyinterestswhileencouragingcollaboration.Mostresearcherswanttoreceivecreditfortheircontributionsanddonotwanttohavetheirideasstolenordisclosedprematurely.Third,manyoftheethicalnormshelptoensurethatresearcherscanbeheldaccountabletothepublic.Forinstance,federalpoliciesonresearchmisconduct,conflictsofinterest,thehumansubjectsprotections,andanimalcareandusearenecessaryinordertomakesurethatresearcherswhoarefundedbypublicmoneycanbeheldaccountabletothepublic.Fourth,ethicalnormsinresearchalsohelptobuild publicsupport forresearch.Peoplemorelikelytofundresearchprojectiftheycantrustthequalityandintegrityofresearch.Finally,manyofthenormsofresearchpromoteavarietyofotherimportantmoralandsocialvalues,suchassocialresponsibility,humanrights,animalwelfare,compliancewiththelaw,andhealthandsafety.Ethicallapsesinresearchcansignificantlyharmhumanandanimalsubjects,students,andthepublic.Forexample,aresearcherwhofabricatesdatainaclinicaltrialmayharmorevenkillpatients,andaresearcherwhofailstoabidebyregulationsandguidelinesrelatingtoradiationorbiologicalsafetymayjeopardizehishealthandsafetyorthehealthandsafetyofstaffandstudents.
CodesandPoliciesforResearchEthics
Giventheimportanceofethicsfortheconductofresearch,itshouldcomeasnosurprisethatmanydifferentprofessionalassociations,governmentagencies,anduniversitieshaveadoptedspecificcodes,rules,andpoliciesrelatingtoresearchethics.Manygovernmentagencies,suchastheNationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH),theNationalScienceFoundation(NSF),theFoodandDrugAdministration(FDA),theEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),andtheUSDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)haveethicsrulesforfundedresearchers.OtherinfluentialresearchethicspoliciesincludetheUniformRequirementsforManuscriptsSubmittedtoBiomedicalJournals(InternationalCommitteeofMedicalJournalEditors),theChemist'sCodeofConduct(AmericanChemicalSociety),CodeofEthics(AmericanSocietyforClinicalLaboratoryScience)EthicalPrinciplesofPsychologists(AmericanPsychologicalAssociation),StatementsonEthicsandProfessionalResponsibility(AmericanAnthropologicalAssociation),StatementonProfessionalEthics(AmericanAssociationofUniversityProfessors),theNurembergCodeandtheDeclarationofHelsinki(WorldMedicalAssociation).
Thefollowingisaroughandgeneralsummaryofsomeethicalprincipalsthatvariouscodesaddress*:
Honesty
Striveforhonestyinallscientificcommunications.Honestlyreportdata,results,methodsandprocedures,andpublicationstatus.Donotfabricate,falsify,ormisrepresentdata.Donotdeceivecolleagues,grantingagencies,orthepublic.
Objectivity
Strivetoavoidbiasinexperimentaldesign,dataanalysis,datainterpretation,peerreview,personneldecisions,grantwriting,experttestimony,andotheraspectsofresearchwhereobjectivityisexpectedorrequired.Avoidorminimizebiasorself-deception.Disclosepersonalorfinancialintereststhatmayaffectresearch.
Integrity
Keepyourpromisesandagreements;actwithsincerity;striveforconsistencyofthoughtandaction.
Carefulness
Avoidcarelesserrorsandnegligence;carefullyandcriticallyexamineyourownworkandtheworkofyourpeers.Keepgoodrecordsofresearchactivities,suchasdatacollection,researchdesign,andcorrespondencewithagenciesorjournals.
Openness
Sharedata,results,ideas,tools,resources.Beopentocriticismandnewideas.
RespectforIntellectualProperty
Honorpatents,copyrights,andotherformsofintellectualproperty.Donotuseunpublisheddata,methods,orresultswithoutpermission.Givecreditwherecreditisdue.Giveproperacknowledgementorcreditforallcontributionstoresearch.Neverplagiarize.
Confidentiality
Protectconfidentialcommunications,suchaspapersorgrantssubmittedforpublication,personnelrecords,tradeormilitarysecrets,andpatientrecords.
ResponsiblePublication
Publishinordertoadvanceresearchandscholarship,nottoadvancejustyourowncareer.Avoidwastefulandduplicativepublication.
ResponsibleMentoring
Helptoeducate,mentor,andadvisestudents.Promotetheirwelfareandallowthemtomaketheirowndecisions.
Respectforcolleagues
Respectyourcolleaguesandtreatthemfairly.
SocialResponsibility
Strivetopromotesocialgoodandpreventormitigatesocialharmsthroughresearch,publiceducation,andadvocacy.
Non-Discrimination
Avoiddiscriminationagainstcolleaguesorstudentsonthebasisofsex,race,ethnicity,orotherfactorsthatarenotrelatedtotheirscientificcompetenceandintegrity.
Competence
Maintainandimproveyourownprofessionalcompetenceandexpertisethroughlifelongeducationandlearning;takestepstopromotecompetenceinscienceasawhole.
Legality
Knowandobeyrelevantlawsandinstitutionalandgovernmentalpolicies.
AnimalCare
Showproperrespectandcareforanimalswhenusingtheminresearch.Donotconductunnecessaryorpoorlydesignedanimalexperiments.
HumanSubjectsProtection
Whenconductingresearchonhumansubjects,minimizeharmsandrisksandmaximizebenefits;respecthumandignity,privacy,andautonomy;takespecialprecautionswithvulnerablepopulations;andstrivetodistributethebenefitsandburdensofresearchfairly.
*AdaptedfromShamooAandResnikD.2009. ResponsibleConductofResearch,2nded. (NewYork:
OxfordUniversityPress).
EthicalDecisionMakinginResearch
Althoughcodes,policies,andprincipalsare
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