CHAPTER 28THE AGE OF ANXIETY.docx
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CHAPTER 28THE AGE OF ANXIETY.docx
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CHAPTER28THEAGEOFANXIETY
CHAPTER28–THEAGEOFANXIETY
WhenAllieddiplomatsmetinParisinearly1919withtheiroptimisticplansforbuildingalastingpeace,mostpeoplelookedforwardtohappiertimes.Theyhopedthatlifewouldreturntonormalaftertheterribletraumaoftotalwar.Theyhopedthatonceagainlifewouldmakesenseinthefamiliarprewartermsofpeace,prosperity,andprogress.Thesehopeswereinvain.TheGreatBreak—theFirstWorldWarandtheRussianRevolutionhadmangledtoomanythingsbeyondrepair.Lifewouldnolongerfitneatlyintotheoldmolds.Instead,greatnumbersofmenandwomenfeltthemselvesincreasinglyadriftinastrange,uncertain,anduncontrollableworld.Theysawthemselveslivinginanageofanxiety,anageofcontinualcrisis(thisagelasteduntilatleasttheearly1950s).Inalmosteveryareaofhumanexperience,peoplewentsearchingforwaystoputmeaningbackintolife.
•WhatdidsuchdoubtsandsearchingmeanforWesternthought,art,andculture?
•Howdidleadersdealwiththepoliticaldimensionsofuncertaintyandtrytore-establishrealpeaceandprosperitybetween1919and1939?
•Whydidthoseleadersfail?
Thesearethequestionsthischapterwillexplore.
UNCERTAINTYINMODERNTHOUGHT
AcomplexrevolutioninthoughtandideaswasunderwaybeforetheFirstWorldWar,butonlysmall,unusualgroupswereawareofit.Afterthewar,newandupsettingideasbegantospreadthroughtheentirepopulation.Westernsocietybegantoquestionandevenabandonmanycherishedvaluesandbeliefsthathadguideditsincetheeighteenth-centuryEnlightenmentandthenineteenth-centurytriumphofindustrialdevelopment,scientificadvances,andevolutionarythought.
Before1914mostpeoplestillbelievedinprogress,reason,andtherightsoftheindividual.Progresswasadailyreality,apparentintherisingstandardofliving,thetamingofthecity,andthesteadyincreaseinpopulareducation.SuchdevelopmentsalsoencouragedthecomfortingbeliefinthelogicaluniverseofNewtonianphysicsaswellasfaithintheabilityofarationalhumanmindtounderstandthatuniversethroughintellectualinvestigation,Andjustastherewerelawsofscience,soweretherelawsofsocietythatrationalhumanbeingscoulddiscoverandthenwiselyacton.Atthesametime,therightsoftheindividualwerenotjusttakenforgranted;theywereactuallyincreasing.Well-establishedpoliticalrightsweregraduallyspreadingtowomenandworkers,andnew“socialrights,”suchasold-agepensions,wereemerging.Inshort,beforeWorldWarImostEuropeanshadamoderatelyoptimisticviewoftheworld,andwithgoodreason.
Nevertheless,sincethe1880s,asmallbandofseriousthinkersandcreativewritershadbeenattackingthesewell-wornoptimisticideas.Thesecriticsrejectedthegeneralfaithinprogressandthepoweroftherationalhumanmind.Anexpandingchorusofthinkersechoedandenlargedtheirviewsaftertheexperienceofhistory’smostdestructivewar—awarthatsuggestedtomanythathumanbeingswereapackofviolent,irrationalanimalsquitecapableoftearingtheindividualandhisorherrightstoshreds.Disorientationandpessimismwereparticularlyacuteinthe1930s,whentherapidriseofharshdictatorshipsandtheGreatDepressiontransformedoldcertaintiesintobitterillusions.Nooneex-
pressedthisstateofuncertaintybetterthanFrenchpoetandcriticPaulValery(1871-1945)intheearly1920s.Speakingofthe“crisisofthemind,”ValerynotedthatEuropewaslookingatitsfuturewithdarkforeboding:
Thestormhasdiedaway,andstillwearerestless,uneasy,asifthestormwereabouttobreak.Almostalltheaffairsofmenremaininaterribleuncertainty.Wethinkofwhathasdisappeared,andwearealmostdestroyedbywhathasbeendestroyed;wedonotknowwhatwillbeborn,andwefearthefuture,notwithoutreason....Doubtanddisorderareinusandwithus.Thereisnothinkingman,howevershrewdorlearnedhemaybe,whocanhopetodominatethisanxiety,toescapefromthisimpressionofdarkness.
Inthemidstofeconomic,political,andsocialdisruptions,Valerysawthe“cruellyinjuredmind,”besiegedbydoubtsandsufferingfromanxieties.Thiswasthegeneralintellectualcrisisofthetwentiethcentury,whichtouchedalmosteveryfieldofthought.Theimplicationsofnewideasanddiscoveriesinphilosophy,physics,psychology,andliteratureplayedacentralroleinthiscrisis,disturbing“thinkingpeople”everywhere.
ModernPhilosophy
Amongthosethinkersinthelatenineteenthcenturywhochallengedthebeliefinprogressandthegeneralfaithintherationalhumanmind,GermanphilosopherFriedrichNietzsche(1844—1900)wasparticularlyinfluential.ThesonofaLutheranminister,NietzscherejectedChristianityandbecameaprofessorofclassicallanguagesuntilillhealthforcedhimtoretireatanearlyage.Neverasystematicphilosopher,Nietzschewroteasaprophetinaprovocativeandpoeticstyle.Hisfirstgreatworkin1872arguedthateversinceclassicalAthens,theWesthadoveremphasizedrationalityandstifledthepassionandanimalinstinctthatdrivehumanactivityandtruecreativity.Nietzschewentontoquestionallvalues.HeclaimedthatChristianityembodieda“slavemorality,”whichglorifiedweakness,envy,andmediocrity.InNietzsche’smostfamousline,awisefoolproclaimsthat“Godisdead,”deadbecauseHehasbeenmurderedbylackadaisicalmodernChristianswhonolongerreallybelieveinHim.Nietzscheviewedthepillarsofconventionalmorality—reason,democracy,progress,respectability—asoutwornsocialandpsychologicalconstructswhoseinfluencewassuffocatingself-realizationandexcellence.
Nietzschepaintedadarkworld,foreshadowingperhapshislossofsanityin1889.TheWestwasindecline;falsevalueshadtriumphed.ThedeathofGodleftpeopledis-orientedanddepressed.Theonlyhopefortheindividualwastoacceptthemeaninglessnessofhumanexistenceandthenmakethatverymeaninglessnessasourceofself-definedpersonalintegrityandhenceliberation.Thiswouldatleastbepossibleforafewsuperiorindividuals,whocouldfreethemselvesfromthehumdrumthinkingofthemassesandbecometrueheroes.Littlereadduringhisactiveyears,Nietzscheattractedgrowingattentionintheearlytwentiethcentury,especiallyfromGermanradicalswhofoundinspirationinNietzsche’sferociousassaultontheconventionsofpre-1914imperialGermany.SubsequentgenerationshaveeachdiscoverednewNietzsches,andhisinfluenceremainsenormoustothisday.
Thisgrowingdissatisfactionwithestablishedideasbefore1914wasapparentinotherimportantthinkers.Inthe1890s,FrenchphilosophyprofessorHenriBergson(1859—1941)convincedmanyyoungpeoplethroughhiswritingthatimmediateexperienceandintuitionwereasimportantasrationalandscientificthinkingforunderstandingreality.Indeed,accordingtoBergson,areligiousexperienceoramysticalpoemwasoftenmoreaccessibletohumancomprehensionthanascientificlaworamathematicalequation.
AnotherthinkerwhoagreedaboutthelimitsofrationalthinkingwasFrenchsocialistGeorgesSorel(1847—1922).SorelfranklycharacterizedMarxiansocialismasaninspiringbutunprovablereligionratherthanarationalscientifictruth.Socialismwouldcometopower,hebelieved,throughagreat,violentstrikeofallworkingpeople,whichwouldmiraculouslyshattercapitalistsociety.Sorelrejecteddemocracyandbelievedthatthemassesofthenewsocialistsocietywouldhavetobetightlycontrolledbyasmallrevolutionaryelite.
TheFirstWorldWaracceleratedtherevoltagainstestablishedcertaintiesinphilosophy,butthatrevoltwentintwoverydifferentdirections.InEnglish-speakingcountries,themaindevelopmentwastheacceptanceoflogicalempiricism(orlogicalpositivism)inuniversitycircles.Incontinentalcountries,whereesotericandremotelogicalempiricismdidnotwinmanyconverts,theprimarydevelopmentinphilosophywasexistentialism.
Logicalempiricismwastrulyrevolutionary.Itquitesimplyrejectedmostoftheconcernsoftraditionalphilosophy,fromtheexistenceofGodtothemeaningofhappiness,asnonsenseandhotair.ThisoutlookbeganprimarilywithAustrianphilosopherLudwigWittgenstein(1889—1951),wholaterimmigratedtoEngland,wherehetrainednumerousdisciples.
WittgensteinarguedinhispugnaciousTractatusLogico-Philosophicus(EssayonLogicalPhilosophy)in1922thatphilosophyisonlythelogicalclarificationofthoughts,andthereforeitbecomesthestudyoflanguage,whichexpressesthoughts.Thegreatphilosophicalissuesoftheages—God,freedom,morality,andsoon—arequiteliterallysenseless,agreatwasteoftime,forstatementsaboutthemcanbeneithertestedbyscientificexperimentsnordemonstratedbythelogicofmathematics.Statementsaboutsuchmattersreflectonlythepersonalpreferencesofagivenindividual.AsWittgensteinputitinthefamouslastsentenceofhiswork,“Ofwhatonecannotspeak,ofthatonemustkeepsilent.”Logicalempiricism,whichhasremaineddominantinEnglandandtheUnitedStatestothisday,drasticallyreducedthescopeofphilosophicalinquiry.Anxiouspeoplecouldfindfew,ifany,answersinthisdirection.
Somelookedforanswersinexistentialism.Highlydiverseandevencontradictory,existentialthinkerswerelooselyunitedinacourageoussearchformoralvalues
FriedrichNietzscheThiscoloredphotographoftheGermanphilosopherwastakenin1882,whenhewasattheheightofhiscreativepowers.Abrillianticonoclast,NietzschedebunkedEuropeanvaluesandchallengedtheoptimisticfaithinhumanrationalitybeforeW
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