上海外国语大学英语语言文学考研试题.docx

上海外国语大学英语语言文学考研试题.docx

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上海外国语大学英语语言文学考研试题

2009年上海外国语大学英语语言文学考研试题

2009年英语语言文学英语综合改错

Afairlystandardconsensualdefinitionis"arelativelypermanentchangeinbehavior（sic.;it'sAmericanofcourse）thatresultsfrompractise."Thisisofcoursearguable,particularlythe"practice"criterion.Otherswouldacceptchangesin"capability"orevensimple"knowledge"or"understanding",evenifitisnotmanifestinbehaviour.Itishoweveranimportantcriterionthat"learned"behaviourisnotpre-programmedorwhollyinstinctive（notawordusedmuchnowadays）,evenifaninstinctualdriveunderpinsit.Behaviourcanalsochangeasaresultofmaturation-simplegrowing-up-withoutbeingtotallylearned.Thinkofthechangingattitudeofchildrenandadolescentstoopposite-sexpeers.Whateverthecase,therehastobeinteractionwiththeenvironment.

Evenifpsychologistseveragreeaboutwhatlearningis,inpracticeeducationalistswon't,becauseeducationintroducesprescriptivenotionsaboutspecifyingwhatoughttobelearnt,andthereisconsiderabledisputeaboutwhetherthisoughtonlytobewhattheteacherwantsthelearnertolearn（implicitinbehaviouralmodels）,orwhatthelearnerwantstolearn（asinhumanisticmodels）.

2009英语语言文学完形填空全文

ObtainingLinguisticData

Manyproceduresareavailableforobtainingdataaboutalanguage.Theyrangefromacarefullyplanned,intensivefieldinvestigationinaforeigncountrytoacasualintrospectionaboutone'smothertonguecarriedoutinanarmchairathome.

Inallcases,someonehastoactasasourceoflanguagedata-aninformant.Informantsare（ideally）nativespeakersofalanguage,whoprovideutterancesforanalysisandotherkindsofinformationaboutthelanguage（e.g.translations,commentsaboutcorrectness,orjudgementsonusage）.Often,whenstudyingtheirmothertongue,linguistsactastheirowninformants,judgingtheambiguity,acceptability,orotherpropertiesofutterancesagainsttheirownintuitions.Theconvenienceofthisapproachmakesitwidelyused,anditisconsideredthenorminthegenerativeapproachtolinguistics.Butalinguist'spersonaljudgementsareoftenuncertain,ordisagreewiththejudgementsofotherlinguists,atwhichpointrecourseisneededtomoreobjectivemethodsofenquiry,usingnon-linguistsasinformants.Thelatterprocedureisunavoidablewhenworkingonforeignlanguages,orchildspeech.

Many  factorsmustbeconsideredwhenselectinginformants-whetheroneisworkingwithsinglespeakers（acommonsituationwhenlanguageshavenotbeendescribedbefore）,twopeopleinteracting,smallgroupsorlarge-scalesamples.Age,sex,socialbackgroundandotheraspectsofidentityareimportant,asthesefactorsareknowntoinfluencethekindoflanguageused.Thetopicofconversationandthecharacteristicsofthesocialsetting（e.g.thelevelofformality）arealsohighlyrelevant,asarethepersonalqualitiesoftheinformants（e.g.theirfluencyandconsistency）.Forlargerstudies,scrupulousattentionhasbeenpaidtothesamplingtheoryemployed,andinallcases,decisionshavetobemadeaboutthebestinvestigativetechniquestouse.

Today,researchersoftentape-recordinformants.Thisenablesthelinguist'sclaimsaboutthelanguagetobechecked,andprovidesawayofmakingthoseclaimsmoreaccurate（'difficult'piecesofspeechcanbelistenedtorepeatedly）.Butobtainingnaturalistic,good-qualitydataisnevereasy.Peopletalkabnormallywhentheyknowtheyarebeingrecorded,andsoundqualitycanbepoor.Avarietyoftape-recordingprocedureshavethusbeendevisedtominimisethe'observer'sparadox'（howtoobservethewaypeoplebehavewhentheyarenotbeningobserved）.Somerecordingsaremadewithoutthespeakerbeingawareofthefact-aprocedurethatobtainsverynaturaldata,thoughethicalobjectionsmustbeanticipated.Alternatively,attemptscanbemadetomakethespeakerforgetabouttherecording,suchaskeepingthetaperecorderoutofsight,orusingradiomicrophones.Ausefultechniqueistointroduceatopicthatquicklyinvolvesthespeaker,andstimulatesanaturallanguagestyle（e.g.askingolderinformantsabouthowtimeshavechangedintheirlocality）.

Anaudiotaperecordingdoesnotsolveallthelinguist'sproblems,however.Speechisoften  unclearandambiguous.Wherepossible,therefore,therecordinghastobesupplementedbytheobserver'swrittencommentsonthenon-verbalbehaviouroftheparticipants,andaboutthecontextingeneral.Afacialexpression,forexample,candramaticallyalterthemeaningofwhatissaid.Videorecordingsavoidtheseproblemstoalargeextent,buteventheyhavelimitations（thecameraconnotbeeverywhere）,andtranscriptionsalwaysbenefitfromanyadditionalcommentaryprovidedbyanobserver.

Linguistsalsomakegreatuseofstructuredsessions,inwhichtheysystematicallyasktheirinformantsforutterancesthatdescribecertainactions,objectsorbehaviour.Withabilingualinformant,orthroughuseofaninterpreter,itispossibletousetranslationtechniques（'Howdoyousaytableinyourlanguage?

'）.Alargenumberofpointscanbecoveredinashorttime,usinginterviewworksheetsandquestionnaires.Often,theresearcherwishestoobtaininformationaboutjustasinglevariable,inwhichcasearestrictedsetofquestionsmaybeused:

aparticularfeatureofpronunciation,forexample,canbeelicitedbyaskingtheinformanttosayarestrictedsetofwords.Therearealsoseveraldirectmethodsofelicitation,suchasaskinginformantstofillintheblanksinasubstitutionframe（e.gI__seeacar）,orfeedingthemthewrongstimulusforcorrection（'IsitpossibletosayInocansee?

'）.

Arepresentativesampleoflanguage,compiledforthepurposeoflinguisticanalysis,isknownasacorpus.Acorpusenablesthelinguisttomakeunbiasedstatementsaboutfrequencyofusage,anditprovidesaccessibledatafortheuseofdifferentresearchers.Itsrangeandsizearevariable.Somecorporaattempttocoverthelanguageasawhole,takingextractsfrommanykindsoftext;othersareextremelyselective,providingacollectionofmaterialthatdealsonlywithaparticularlinguisticfeature.Thesizeoftheporpusdependsonpracticalfactors,suchasthetimeavailabletocollect,processandstorethedata:

itcantakeuptoseveralhourstoprovideanaccuratetranscriptionofafewminutesofspeech.Sometimesasmallsampleofdatawillbeenoughtodecidealinguistichypothesis;bycontrast,corporainmajorresearchprojectscantotalmillionsofwords.Animportantprincipleisthatallcorpora,whatevertheirsize,areinevitablylimitedintheircoverage,andalwaysneedtobesupplementedbydataderivedfromtheintuitionsofnativespeakersofthelanguage,througheitherintrospectionorexperimentation.

2009英语语言文学英语综合阅读理解Passage1

BAKELITE

Thebirthofmodernplastics

In1907,LeoHendrickBaekeland,aBelgianscientistworkinginNewYork,discoveredandpatentedarevolutionarynewsyntheticmaterial.Hisinvention,whichhenamed'Bakelite',wasofenormoustechnologicalimportance,andeffectivelylaunchedthemodernplasticsindustry.

Theterm'plastic'comesfromtheGreekplassein,meaning'tomould'.Someplasticsarederivedfromnaturalsources,somearesemi-synthetic（theresultofchemicalactiononanaturalsubstance）,andsomeareentirelysynthetic,thatis,chemicallyengineeredfromtheconstituentsofcoaloroil.Someare'thermoplastic',whichmeansthat,likecandlewax,theymeltwhenheatedandcanthenbereshaped.Othersare'thermosetting':

likeeggs,theycannotreverttotheiroriginalviscousstate,andtheirshapeisthusfixedforever.,Bakelitehadthedistinctionofbeingthefirsttotallysyntheticthermosettingplastic.

Thehistoryoftoday'splasticsbeginswiththediscoveryofaseriesofsemi-syntheticthermoplasticmaterialsinthemid-nineteenthcentury.Theimpetusbehindthedevelopmentoftheseearlyplasticswasgeneratedbyanumberoffactors-immensetechnologicalprogressinthedomainofchemistry,coupledwithwiderculturalchanges,andthepragmaticneedtofindacceptablesubstitutesfordwindlingsuppliesof'luxury'materialssuchastortoiseshellandivory.

Baekeland'sinterestinplasticsbeganin1885when,asayoungchemistrystudentinBelgium,heembarkedonresearchintophenolicresins,thegroupofstickysubstancesproducedwhenphenol（carbolicacid）combineswithanaldehyde（avolatilefluidsimilartoalcohol）.Hesoonabandonedthesubject,however,onlyreturningtoitsomeyearslater.By1905hewasawealthyNewYorker,havingrecentlymadehisfortunewiththeinventionofanewphotographicpaper.WhileBaekelandhadbeenbusilyamassingdollars,someadvanceshadbeenmadeinthedevelopmentofplastics.Theyears1899and1900hadseenthepatentingofthefirstsemi-syntheticthermosettingmaterialthatcouldbemanufacturedonanindustrialscale.Inpurelyscientificterms,Baekeland'smajorcontributiontothefieldisnotsomuchtheactualdiscoveryofthematerialtowhichhegavehisname,butratherthemethodbywhichareactionbetweenphenolandformaldehydecouldbecontrolled,thusmakingpossibleitspreparationonacommercialbasis.On13July1907,Baekelandtookouthisfamouspatentdescribingthispreparation,theessentialfeaturesofwhicharestillinusetoday.

Theoriginalpatentoutlinedathree-stageprocess,inwhichphenolandformaldehyde（fromwoodorcoal）wereinitiallycombinedundervacuuminsidealargeegg-shapedkettle.TheresultwasaresinknownasNovalak,whichbecamesolubleandmalleablewhenheated.Theresinwasallowedtocoolinshallowtraysuntilithardened,andthenbrokenupandgroundintopowder.Othersubstanceswerethenintrodu