The literature around the Revolution of Independence.docx
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The literature around the Revolution of Independence.docx
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TheliteraturearoundtheRevolutionofIndependence
TheLiteratureAroundtheRevolutionofIndependence:
1750---1810
HistoricalOverview
Inaperiodofmorethanfiftyyears,theAmericannationhoodtransformedfromitscolonialstatustothatofindependenceandfederation.TheeighteenthcenturyAmericanhistorywitnessedtwogreatrevolutions:
onewasAmericanRevolutionwhichledeventuallytotheindependenceofthenationandtheotherwasEnlightenment,anintellectualmovementwhoserationalisticspiritinspiredAmericanmenoflettersandbroughtthemintoanewhorizonbeyondthelimitationofprevailingPuritanism.
Enlightenment
InEngland,Enlightenmentdevelopedinthe17thcentury.ItgraduallyextendeditsinfluencetoFranceandEuropeandthen,inthe18thcentury,reachedthecoloniesofAmerica.TheideasofEnlightenmentintellectuallyshapedthetransitionoftheAmericannationhoodtothestatusofindependenceandfederation.Indeed,the18thcenturyinAmericaisknownastheAgeofReasonandEnlightenment.
LiketheirEuropeancounterparts,educatedcolonistsinAmericawereinfluencedbythescientificrationalismofSirIssacNewton(1642–1727)andthephilosophiesofThomasHobbes(1588–1679霍布士,哲学家)andJohnLocke(1642–1704).NewtonianideascanbeseenasageneralsymbolofworldoutlookinEnlightenmentthinking.LockeandHobbesrepresentthepoliticalphilosophieswithinEnlightenmentreason.
ThroughtheNewtonianprism,theuniverseisseenasamechanismoperatingbyarationalformulaorbyunchanginglawsavailabletointelligenthumans.ThisuniverseisaharmonioussystemevidencingabenevolentGod.Mankindissupposedtohavetheabilitytodiscoverandunfoldall“Nature’sLaws”.Ontheonehand,Newtonianrationalismnurturedafaithinscienceandtheideaofprogress,andontheotherhand,NewtonianassumptionsalsohelpedshapeanewimageofGod,differentfromthatofPuritanism.ThisisatranscendentalGodoperatingbynaturallaws,notbyprovidentialintervention.ThisGodisrevealedinnature,notintheBible.Becauseman’sinnerharmonyissupposedtocorrespondtotheharmoniousnature,manissupposedtobenaturallyaltruistic.Evilthenisunderstoodnotastheresultofman’snaturaldepravitybutastheconsequenceofcorruptinstitutions.Therefore,sothelogicgoes,mancanbeperfectedthrougheducation.Inthisreligiousthinking,allmenarecreatedequal.ThatideawouldeventuallyappearinTheDeclarationofIndependence.
TheinfluenceofThomasHobbesandJohnLockewerefeltintherealmofpsychologicalandpoliticalinquiries.BothofthetwoarguedagainstthatmankindhasaninnateknowledgegivenbyGod.Hobbesbelievedintheabsolutepowerofthestate;Lockethoughteverypersonwasbornwithablankslate,uponwhichexperienceinscribeditslessons.Locke’sviewofhumannaturewasmorefavorablethanHobbes’,andhisconceptionofgovernmentisbasedontheideaofmutualbenefit.
AttheinitialperiodinAmerica,thespreadofideasofEnlightenmentwaslargelyduetojournalism.TheAmericanreadingpublicatthetimedisplayedgreatinterestintheworksofEnglishscientists,philosophersandwriters.ThewritersoftheFrenchEnlightenment,particularlyVoltaire,werewidelyreadinAmerica.
Withanunshakeablebeliefinthepowerofreason,theEnlightenmentregarded“enlightenment”or“education”astheprincipalmeansforthedevelopmentofasociety.Moreover,theyshowedlargeconcernsforcivilrights,amorecomprehensivedemocracyingovernment,andgeneraltolerationratherthanearlierreligiousmysticism.
TheEnlightenersadvocatedpubliclytostudy“man”insteadof“God”,andpointedoutthatthe“evils”inhumancivilizationstemmedfromthesocialinjustice,notfrom“originalsin”.TheEnlightenmentemphasizedon“reason”,requiredpeopletopayattentiontothesocialreality,advocatededucationandscientificresearch,andbelievedthatmancould“perfecthimself”andmanshoulddecidehisowndestiny.Meanwhile,theyenergeticallypropagatedtheviewsofthesocialprogress,humanismandtheideasofequality.
Deism/Unitarianism唯一神教
Whenrationalismwasappliedtotheology,itledtotheappearanceofDeism,thebeliefinnaturalreligion,butthedegreesofDeismrangedwidely.TheyconfirmedDeistheldthat:
(1)onlyoneGodwasworthworshipping;
(2)mancouldkeepmakingprogressbymakinguseofhisownmoralsenseandofhisownintelligenceandwisdom;
(3)manshouldlovetruthanddogood;
(4)educationandsciencewasanimportantmeanstocreateman’shappiness;
(5)thefreedomofcitizen’sspeech,action,andfaithembodiedman’sbasicbenefits;
(6)toseverGodwastodogoodforthemankind.
ComparedwithPuritanism,Deismmadeagreatleapforward.Inthepast,Godgovernedall---controlledmanandallthingsonearth.Deistsconsideredthat“themovementoftheuniversedatesfromGod,”thatallthingsinthenatureweretheembodimentsofgods,andthatwhymanlivedintheworldwasnottosuffersoastoexchangefortherebirthofthenextgeneration,buttoeliminatetheinequalityofrace,sexandfaithandtobuilduphisown“earthlyparadise”inthehumanworld.ThisideologypromotedAmericanRevolutionanditsfinalsuccess.DeismattractedpeoplewhoweredissatisfiedwithPuritanism.Itquicklydevelopedandthenjustasquicklydeclinedwhenitdevelopeditsowndogmas.WilliamElleryChanning(1780---1842)becamethenewleader.HisredefinitionledDeismintothephilosophyoftranscendentalism.(威廉·钱宁的弟弟为著名的《北美评论》创始人,哈佛大学教授EdwardTyrellChanning1790–1856,EmersonandThoreau的老师)
TheAmericanRevolution
Intheseventiesofthe18thcenturytheEnglishcoloniesinNorthAmericaroseinarmsagainsttheirmothercountry.TheWarforIndependencelastedforeightyears(1776–1783)andendedintheformationofaFederativebourgeoisdemocraticrepublic---theU.S.A..
Thetworevolutionsproducedanumberofoutstandingpoliticalandliteraryfigures,suchasBenjaminFranklin,ThomasPaine,andThomasJefferson,whoseliterarytalentenabledthemtobepoliticalleaderswithmoredynamic,andevenmadeliteraturebecomepartoftherevolutions.LiteratureintheperiodofAmericanRevolution(before,duringandafter)waspredominantlypublicandutilitarian.ItwasinthisperiodthatAmericannationhood,withtheUnitedStatesasitsname,begantoemerge.
ThePoliticalPamphlets独立革命时期的政论文学
ThestreamofeighteenthcenturyAmericanliteraturemanifestedanobvioustransitionfromPuritanismtotheEnlightenment.Theheroicandrevolutionaryambitionsoftheagehadcreatedgreatpoliticalpamphleteeringandstatepapers.Theproseofthegreatphilosopher-statesmenmakesupaprominentpartoftheeighteenthcenturyAmericanliterature.OutofthetumultoftheagecametheinspiredwritingofThomasJeffersonintheDeclarationofIndependence,ofThomasPaineinCommonSense,TheCrisis(1776),andoftheFederalist(1787–1788),whichstirredtheworldandhelpedformtheAmericanrepublic.Thesegreatworksservedeffectivelyforthephilosophicalorpoliticalpurposesoftheirauthors,andpossessedsucharrestingliteraryvaluesthatsomeofthemhavebeenconsideredasthelandmarksofAmericanliteratureoftheage.
JamesOtis(1725---1883)奥蒂斯,lawyer
AVindicationoftheConductoftheHouseofRepresentativesoftheProvinceoftheMassachusettsBay《为马萨诸塞湾代表会议辩护》(proposedtenprinciplesonrights,whichinfluencedTheDeclarationofIndependencegreatly)(他的观点主要包括:
上帝平等造人;人的优劣不是与生俱来的,而是后天获得的;无论什么样的政府都不能奴役人民;尽管政府事实上是人为的,但从权利上说并非如此,即政府是人民选出来的,但它无权滥用职权。
尽管他在此传单中也提到了英王是“世上最荣耀的君王”之类的话,但他关于人生而平等,以及政府权利等的思想已经从事实上为后来的北美独立埋下了伏笔。
)随着关于殖民地权利以及殖民地与宗主国关系的讨论的日益深入,他于1764年7月发表了又一份传单,即著名的《英属殖民地权利论》(TheRightsoftheBritishColony),分政府的起源、一般殖民地权益之本质,和英属北美殖民地权益之本质等三方面,再次全面阐述了他的观点。
JohnAdams(1735---1826)亚当斯
AdamsgraduatedfromHarvardin1755andthenbecamealawyer.1765年8月,在《波士顿日报》上连续发表了4篇没有标题、没有署名的文章,对“印花税法”等提出强烈抗议,同时作者将政治问题同大众的切身利益联系起来,使文章更具有历史和理论的深度。
同时,读者也能从中隐约体会到它们对美国建国思想,特别是对《独立宣言》的影响。
这几篇政论文逻辑严密,气势磅礴,是当时可读性较强的政论散文。
AlexanderHamilton(1757---1804)汉密尔顿
HamiltonwasbornintheWestIndies.HecametoNewYorkin1722andinthefollowingyearwasenrolledintoKing’sCollege(ColumbiaUniversitytoday),NewYork.In1775hejoinedthearmyandservedonGeorgeWashington’sstaff.HewrotetogetherwithJamesMadisonTheFederalistPapers(1787—1788).ThepaperssuggestthattheConstitutionestablishedarepublicangovernmentratherthanademocraticone.ThepaperslaidthebasisoftheFederalistsystemandeconomicfutureoftheUnitedStates.IftheDeclarationmobilizedtheAmericansintotherevolution,theFederalistPapersstabilizedthepoliticalandeconomicsystem.Inretrospect,itisagreedthattheFederalistisagreatAmericanworkinpoliticaltheory.Hamilton’swritingshowsacalmappealtoreasonandexperience;hislanguageisdignified,precise,withcoherentorderliness.HiswritingreflectshisbroadrangeofreadingwhichincludedHume,Hobbes,Rousseau,Vattle,Montesquieu,AdamSmithandtheGreekclassics.Hewaskilledinaduelin1804.是美国独立革命以及建国初期的重要政治家,在宪法指定、合众国的经济、财政等领域内发挥了重要的作用。
在《为大陆代表会议所去的措施辩护》(AFullVindicationoftheMeasuresoftheCongress,1774)这份传单中,他反驳了西伯里关于“大陆议会合不合法”的论点。
ThomasPaine(1737---1809)托马斯·潘恩
PaineranksamongthemostimportantAmericanprosewritersoftheeighteenthcentury.HewasborninThetford,England,thesonofaQuaker(memberoftheSocietyofFriends,aChristiangroupthatholdsinformalmeetingsinsteadofformalchurchservicesandisopposedtoviolenceorwarunderanycircumstances)corsetmaker.Hetriedseveraloccupations---ascorsetmaker,sailor,teacher,taxcollector,tobacconist,andgrocer---withdisappointingresu
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