Revision notes Childhood.docx
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Revision notes Childhood.docx
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RevisionnotesChildhood
Pollock:
ForgottenChildren
Sourcesavailableareoverwhelminglysecondary:
∙Moral,medicalandreligioustracts
∙Religioussermons
∙Viewsofcontemporary‘experts’
∙Tucker:
earlyprintedbooksthatdealwithchildren,education,paediatricsandparentalattitudes
∙DeMause,forstudyingdiscipline,uses200advicestatementsonrearingchildren(18thCentury)
∙Stonelistsseveralhundredsuchsourcesofevidence
∙Furthersupplementaryevidence:
paintings(espAriès),fictionalliterature(Godfrey,Lyman),travellers’accounts(Marvick,Shorter),newspaperreports(Bremner,Stone),Biographies(deMause,McLaughlin),legislation(Demos,Morgan)
∙Primarysources:
diaries,memoirsandletters.
Whenprimarysourcesareusedasmainsourcesofevidence,amuchlessrepressivepictureofchildhoodemerges.SeeforinstanceCrump,Mcfarlane,SmithandTrumbachandLochead.Huntistheonlyexceptionandthisprobablydueto“strangeness”ofDrHéroard’sdiary.
Thosewhohaveuseddiariesandautobiographiesassupplementaryevidencehaveoftendonesoselectively,choosingpassagestofittheirargument,oremphasisedunrepresentativetextsorpassages.
Inre-examiningthesis,Pollockasks3questions:
(a)whywouldparentalcarehaveevolvedinsuggestedway(towardsabuse,neglectandill-treatment)?
(b)Doparentsignoreorill-treattheiroffspringonalargescaleinprimateorprimitivesocieties?
(c)Wouldnotcontinuingbrutalityadverselyeffectachild’sdevelopment?
Toanswer,sherefersto:
-socio-biologicaltheoryonevolutionofchildcare
-studiesofparentalcareinprimates(bothlabstudiesandnaturalisticobservations)
-evidencefromanthropologicalstudies
-evidenceontheeffectsofprivationandabuseonyoungprimatesandchildren
sheaimstoshowthatitwouldhavebeendifficultforprevailingtheoriesonhistoryofchildhoodtohavebeenpractisedbymajorityofpopulation.
Seepages33to41
“Ifparentsinpastcenturieswereasindifferenttotheiroffspringashasbeensuggested,thenitwouldseemreasonabletoassume,fromevidencecontainedinabovestudies,thattheyproducedagroupofdamagedchildrenwhowoulddevelopintodeficientadults.Fewauthorsarepreparedtoclaimthatpastsocietieswerelargelycomposedoflessthancompetentadults.”
Evidence
Childadviceliteraturemainsourceofmanyworks.Butseriousproblemswiththis,towhichrelativelyfewauthorshavepaidmuchattention:
-howrepresentativeareworksofadviceofwhatactuallygoesoninthehome?
SeveralstudiesofcontempBritainandUSrevealthatfewparentspaymuchattentiontothem
-4methodologicaldifficulties:
-meaningoftheadvice:
representationofpracticeorvanguardofreform?
-classbias:
mainlyforliteratemiddle&upperclass
-theextenttowhichadviceliteratureused
-theoreticallinkbetweenbehaviourandvalue
-twotypesofadviceliterature:
authoritarianandpermissive(19thC)
travellers’accounts:
moredescriptivethanadviceliterature,butbiasedbyculturaldifferences–judgementsofsaywhetherornotUSkidsareaggressiveandautonomouswillreflectvisitor’sdefinitionsoftheseterms.Moreoverclassbiased–visitorsusuallyonlysawurbanupperclass,fleetingly.
Paintingstowhatextentdopaintingsrepresentreality?
Towhatextentdochangesindepictionhavemoretodowithartisticandstylistic,thansocio-cultural,changes?
Whatwerethefunctionsofthepictures?
?
–marriagedeals.
Treatmentofchildren,infanticide,wetnursing,swaddlingandabandonment.Difficulttoinferfromoccurrenceofinfanticidethatsurvivingchildrenill-treated.Uncertaintyinanycaseaboutprevalenceofpractice.
Newspaperswouldappeartobefairlyreliablesourcesofevidence.Reportsareaccountsofactualbehaviourandthewayinwhichtheeventisreportedgivesanindicationofhowtheactisregardedbysociety.
Afurtherproblemwithmanyaccountsisthatmanyauthorshavetriedtolinkhistoryofchildhoodtobroadersocialdevelopments(capitalism,democracy,individualism,education).
Diaries
presentanumberofmethodologicalproblems
(a)representation:
whatkindofpplwrotethemandwhy?
(b)Censorship:
areimportantdetailsleftoutoromittedbyeitherdiaristoreditor?
(c)Generalisation:
isitpossibletoinferbehaviourofothersectionsofsocietyfromthesediaries?
Relationshipbetweenattitudesandbehaviourproblematictoo
Representation
Withreftolowerclasses,argumentbymanywritersthatthepoorlivedcold,affectionlessandbrutalliveshasbeenderivedfromlackofevidence.Recentresearchsuggeststhatthisiscompletelyunwarrantedaninterpretation(seep.70)
Thisstudyconcernedonlywith“domestic”diary.Numerousothertypes–war,travel,politicalcreligiousandaccount-keepingdiary.
Keepingadiarynotuncommon–butwerediaristsasaclassrepresentativeoftheirsociety?
!
Importanttoconsiderwhyadiaristkeptadiary!
Butitseemsthatthereislittledifferencebetweenthosediarieswrittenwithpublicationinmind,andthosenot.Forinstanceasregardsdiscipline,thosewriterswhoatleastconsideredpublication,wrotedownthesamerangeofexperienceasthatfoundintherestofthetexts.
Censorship
Discipliningofchildrenappearstohavebeenveryemotivearea.Informationpossiblyomittedbcdiaristthoughtitcommonplaceandnotworthmentioning,orconsideredtooshamefultorelate,ordiaristthoughtsocietywouldconsideritshameful.Orbecauseeditoromittedanydetails.Orbcnosuchpunishmenttookplace.
Howparentsregardedtheirchildren,andhowparentsregardedtheirrole–the19thCentury
19thCBritdiaristslookedupontheirchildrenwithpleasure&affection.Butwhatismoststrikingisthelargeincreaseinambivalenceexperiencedbyparentswithregardtotheirchildren,andtheappearanceofnostalgiaforchildhood.Latterlinkedtomassivechanges,escapism?
Concernwithmouldingachild’scharacter.
Duringearlypartof19thCdefiniteintensificationofadultdemandsforobedienceandconformity,notablyinschools.Thisseverityoccurredinonlyminorityoftexts,butchildrencouldonoccasionbesubjectedtodefinitecruelty.Industrialisationmayhavecontributedtostrictnessofdiscipline–athesistobetestedbycomparingruralwithurbantestimony.
Later19thCtextsbycontrastrevealalesseningofparentalcontrolinareaslikecareerormarriage,andalsoreductionofparent-childconflict.
Thisalldrawnfromanalysisof433BritishandAmerican16th,17th,18thand19thCprimarytexts(diariesandautobiographies).
Hopkins:
ChildhoodTransformed
Poorlawsonlyofficialwelfareagencyavailable–modernsocialservicesalmostwhollyabsentin19thC.
Popgrewatunprecedentedrate,doubledin1sthalfofC,almostdoubledagainin2ndhalf----youthfulsociety,childrenunder14constitutedatleast1/3rdofpop,formuchoftheperiodalmost40%.
Thepauperchildrenonoutdoorreliefconstitutedbyfarlargestcategoryofpauperchildren–4/5thsofdestitutechildrenwererelievedoutsideWH,andonanyonedaybetween1834and1909theirnumbersrarelyfellbelow200,000andattimesexceeded300,000.MorechildrenweresubjectedtoPoorLawsoutsidethaninsideWH.Onthewhole,centralrecordsofpoorlawoflittleuseindescribingthesechildren.Ofcourse,notdutyofWHBoardsofGuardianstoenquireindetailintohomeconditions,butsimplytograntreliefwhensufficientcausewasshown.-----outdoorchildrenappearinfrequentlyinnationalrecords,e.g.whenPoorLawBoardfistrefusedtopermitpaymentofschoolfeesforthesechildren,butlaterhadtoallowitunderDenison’sAct(1855).
Forster’sAct(1870)confirmedthisandmadeschoolattendanceaconditionofrelief.
Otherwiseitmustbeassumedthatstandardoflivingoflabourerswasverylow,andwhenonoutdoorreliefmusthaveapproachedstarvationlevels.Anyallowancegiveninrespectofchildrenwasverymeagrebutitwasnotuntilthebeginningofthenextcenturythattherewasanyinvestigationintothestateofchildrenonoutdoorrelief.
InsummingupthechangesintheWHunderthePoorLawBoard,itisevidentthatfromthe1860son,increasingemphasiswasplaceduponeducationandtheprovisionofdistrictschools–thoughitmustbeemphasisedtoothatonlyasmallproportionofdistrictunionsbuiltthem.Theyattractedcriticismlaterinthecentury,butsomeofthemseemtohavebeenrathermorecheerfulinstitutionsthanonemightexpect.
Bythe1860sitwasbeingrealisedthatWHhousedrelativelyfew‘able-bodiedpaupers’towhomthe‘lesseligibility’rulewastobeapplied.Rather,theywereturningintogeneralinfirmariesandasylums,housingtheaged,infirm,destitutesick–andchildren.Increasingattentionbegantobepaidtothedifferentclassesofinmates,andanumberofimprovementswererecommendedinPoorLawBoardCircularsof1868:
wheretherewerelargenumbersofchildrenthereweretobeday-rooms,coveredplay-shedsandindustrialwork-roomsinadditiontoschools.Foodtoowastobeimproved.Howfartheserecommendationsreallyimprovedlifeonthegroundisimpossibletoassess,butitisclearthatfromthelate1860sonwards,realattemptswerebeingmadetoimproveconditionsgenerallyintheWH.
Conditionsfrom1871onwards
In1871functionsofPoorLawBoardtransferredtothenewLocalGovernmentBoard.
Furtherattemptstoimprovecareforindoorpauperchildren,butlittleforthoseonoutdoorrelief.ThisdespitefactthatGuardiansacquiredmorepowerstoprotectoutdoorchildren:
-directedby1868statutetobringactionagainstparentsneglectingtheirkids
-thisconfirmedby1889CrueltytoChildrenAct
-Guardianscouldm
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