Equal pay for women.docx
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Equal pay for women.docx
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Equalpayforwomen
Equalpayforwomen
Equalpayforwomenisanissueregardingpayinequalitybetweenmenandwomen.Itisoftenintroducedintodomesticpoliticsinmanyfirstworldcountriesasaneconomicproblemthatneedsgovernmentalinterventionviaregulation.TheEqualRemunerationConventionrequiresitsover160statespartiestohaveequalpayformenandwomen.
Genderpaygap
GenderPayGapinaveragegrosshourlyearningsaccordingtoEurostatdata,2008.[1]
Themedianwageforwomenislowerthanthemedianwageformeninmostcountries[1][2][3].Thereisageneralscholarlyconsensusthatthemajorityofthedifferencesbetweenmenandwomen'spaycanbeattributedtodifferencesinthechoicesmenandwomenmakeregardingtheircareers.[4][5]Thereisdisagreementoverwhatamountoftheunexplainedgapisduetoexplicitdiscriminationagainstwomen,andhowmuchofitcanbeattributedtoremainingdifferencesbetweenmenandwomen'schoices.[4][6]Thereisalsodisagreementoverwhetherthechoicesthatwomenandmenmakeregardingtheircareersarethemselvesaproductofdiscriminationorsocialpressures.
ForexampleastudycommissionedbytheUnitedStatesDepartmentofLabor,concludedthat"Thereareobservabledifferencesintheattributesofmenandwomenthataccountformostofthewagegap.Statisticalanalysisthatincludesthosevariableshasproducedresultsthatcollectivelyaccountforbetween65.1and76.4percentofarawgenderwagegapof20.4percent,andtherebyleaveanadjustedgenderwagegapthatisbetween4.8and7.1percent."[6]Thestudyalsoconcludedthatwhileinprincipalmoreofthewagegapcouldbeexplainedbydifferencesbetweenthegroups,thedatathatwouldbeneededtoaccountforadditionalfactorswasnotavailable.
ArecentstudybytheAmericanAssociationofUniversityWomenonthewagesofcollegeeducatedwomenoneyearaftergraduationidentifieddiscriminationas"onepotentialcontributortotheunexplainedwagegap".[4][5]Thestudyalsoarguedthatdiscriminationandculturalgendernormsplayaroleindeterminingthedifferentchoicesthatmenandwomenmakeregardingpay.
Situationbycountry
Australia
UnderAustralia'soldcentralisedwagefixingsystem,"equalpayforworkofequalvalue"bywomenwasintroducedin1969.Anti-discriminationonthebasisofsexwaslegislatedin1984.[7]
InNovember2011,AustralianPrimeMinisterJuliaGillardannouncedeffortsbythenationalgovernmenttoimprovesalariesofthe150,000lowest-paidworkersinAustralia,roughly120,000women,bycontributingA$2billionoverthenext6years.[8]
Canada
InCanadianusage,thetermspayequityandpayequalityareusedsomewhatdifferentlythaninothercountries.Thetwotermsrefertodistinctlyseparatelegalconcepts.
Payequality,orequalpayforequalwork,referstotherequirementthatmenandwomenbepaidthesameifperformingthesamejobinthesameorganization.Forexample,afemaleelectricianmustbepaidthesameasamaleelectricianinthesameorganization.Reasonabledifferencesarepermittedifduetoseniorityormerit.
PayequalityisrequiredbylawineachofCanada’s14legislativejurisdictions(tenprovinces,threeterritories,andthefederalgovernment).Notethatfederallegislationappliesonlytothoseemployersincertainfederallyregulatedindustriessuchasbanks,broadcasters,andairlines,tonameafew.Formostemployers,therelevantlegislationisthatoftherespectiveprovinceorterritory.
Forfederallyregulatedemployers,payequalityisguaranteedundertheCanadianHumanRightsAct.[9]InOntario,payequalityisrequiredundertheOntarioEmploymentStandardsAct.[10]EveryCanadianjurisdictionhassimilarlegislation,althoughthenameofthelawwillvary.
Incontrast,payequity,intheCanadiancontext,meansthatmale-dominatedoccupationsandfemale-dominatedoccupationsofcomparablevaluemustbepaidthesameifwithinthesameemployer.TheCanadiantermpayequityisreferredtoas“comparableworth”intheUS.Forexample,ifanorganization’snursesandelectriciansaredeemedtohavejobsofequalimportance,theymustbepaidthesame.Onewayofdistinguishingtheconceptsistonotethatpayequalityaddressestherightsofwomenemployeesasindividuals,whereaspayequityaddressestherightsoffemale-dominatedoccupationsasgroups.
CertainCanadianjurisdictionshavepayequitylegislationwhileothersdonot,hencethenecessityofdistinguishingbetweenpayequityandpayequalityinCanadianusage.Forexample,inOntario,payequalityisguaranteedthroughtheOntarioEmploymentStandardsAct[10]whilepayequityisguaranteedthroughtheOntarioPayEquityAct.[11]Ontheotherhand,thethreewesternmostprovinces(BritishColumbia,Alberta,andSaskatchewan)havepayequalitylegislationbutnopayequitylegislation.Someprovinces(forexample,Manitoba)havelegislationthatrequirespayequityforpublicsectoremployersbutnotforprivatesectoremployers;meanwhile,payequalitylegislationappliestoeveryone.
Ireland
InIreland,theAnti-Discrimination(Pay)Actwaspassedin1974andcameintoforcein1977.
Italy
InItalyequalpayforwomenisguaranteedinArticle37,Paragraph1oftheConstitution,whichstates[12]
"Workingwomenareentitledtoequalrightsand,forcomparablejobs,equalpayasmen.Workingconditionsmustallowwomentofulfiltheiressentialroleinthefamilyandensureappropriateprotectionforthemotherandchild."
UnitedKingdom
TheEqualPayActof1970waspassedbytheUnitedKingdomParliamenttopreventdiscriminationasregardstotermsandconditionsofemploymentbetweenmenandwomen,followingthe1968Fordsewingmachinistsstrike.AsimilaracttothesewaspassedinFrancein1972.ThesereflectedArticle119oftheoriginalEECTreaty,whichstarted:
"EachMemberStateshallinthecourseofthefirststageensureandsubsequentlymaintaintheapplicationoftheprincipleofequalremunerationforequalworkasbetweenmenandwomenworkers."
In1978,despitethepassagelegislationtopromoteequalpay,women’srelativepositionintheUKwasstillworsethaninItaly,France,Germany,ortheBeneluxcountriesin1972.[13]
TheEqualPayActwasrepealedbutitssubstantiveprovisionswerereplicatedintheEqualityAct2010.
TheSupremeCourtcaseofBirminghamCityCouncilvAbdullasaidthatemployeescanclaimequalpayuptosixyearsafterleavingtheirjob.[14]Leadinglegalexpertshavesuggestedthatthiscouldopenthefloodgatesoflitigation,withthepublicsectorbearingthebruntoftheimpact.
UnitedStates
Seealso:
Male–femaleincomedisparityintheUnitedStates
IntheUnitedStates,themedianincomeforwomenisroughly77%ofthemedianincomeformen.[15]Economistsexpectthatinafreemarket,managerswouldprefertohirelesscostlywomenworkers,forcingmentocompetewithwomenonwagesandbalancingoutthewagedisparity.[16]Ontheotherhand,aneconomicsystemwherethegovernmentcontrolswageswouldalsobalanceoutthewagedisparity.Therefore,thegendergapinwagescannotbefullyattributedtotheeconomicsystem.
SeveralstudiesofwomeninthelegalprofessionrevealpersistentgapsinpartnershipnumbersatmajorAmericanLawFirms.Despitethefactthatwomenhavegraduatedfromlawschoolsinequalnumbersforovertwentyyears,only16-19%oflawfirmpartnersarewomen.[17][18]Likewise,only51%ofwomenpolledweresatisfiedwiththeircompensation,comparedto71%ofmen.[19]
EqualPayActof1963andTitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964
LegislationpassedbytheFederalGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesin1963madeitillegaltopaymenandwomendifferentwageratesforequalworkonjobsthatrequireequalskill,effort,andresponsibilityandareperformedundersimilarworkingconditions.[20]OneyearafterpassingtheEqualPayAct,Congresspassedthe1964CivilRightsAct.TitleVIIofthisact,makesitunlawfultodiscriminatebasedonaperson’srace,religion,color,orsex.[21]TitleVIIattackssexdiscriminationmorebroadlythantheEqualPayActextendingnotonlytowagesbuttocompensation,terms,conditionsorprivilegesofemployment.ThuswiththeEqualPayActandTitleVII,anemployercannotdenywomenequalpayforequalwork;denywomentransfers,promotions,orwageincreases;manipulatejobevaluationstorelegatewomen’spay;orintentionallysegregatemenandwomenintojobsaccordingtotheirgender.[22]
SinceCongresswasdebatingthisbillatthesametimethattheEqualPayActwascomingintoeffect,therewasconcernoverhowthesetwolawswouldinteract,whichledtothepassageofSenatorBennett’sAmendment.ThisAmendmentstates:
“ItShallnotbeunlawfulemploymentpracticeunderthissubchapterforanyemployertodifferentiateuponthebasisofsex...ifsuchdifferentiationisauthorizedbytheprovisionsofthe[EqualPayAct].”TherewasconfusionontheinterpretationofthisAmendment,whichwaslefttothecourtstoresolve.[23]
WashingtonandMinnesotaStateActions
InWashington,GovernorEvansimplementedapayequitystudyin1973andthenanotherin1977.[24]Theresultsclearlyshowedthatwhencomparingmaleandfemaledominatedjobstherewasalmostnooverlapbetweentheaveragesforsimilarjobsandineverysector,atwentypercentgapemerged.Forexample,afoodserviceworkerearned$472permonth,andaDeliveryTruckDriverearned$792,thoughtheywerebothgiventhesameamountof“points”onthescaleofcomparableworthtothestate.[25]Unfortunatelyforthestate,andforthefemalestateworkers,hissuccessorGovernorDixieLeeRayfailedtoimplementtherecommendationsofthestudy(whichclearlystatedwomenmade20percentle
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