传播学 复习要点.docx
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传播学 复习要点.docx
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传播学复习要点
Chapter1
1.“Welookatthepresentthrougharear-viewmirror.Wemarchbackwardsintothefuture.”ItissaidbyMarshallMcLuhan.
2.RobertCathcartandGaryGumpert,twomediaresearchers,havecalledthephenomenonofseeingthepresentintermsofthepasta“mediagenerationgap.”
3.DefinitionofCommunication
Communicationisthetransmissionofinformationwiththeintentionofinfluencinganaudience.Itisasymbolic,purposive,two-wayprocesswhichishighlycontextualized.
4.CharacteristicsofCommunication
CommunicationIsaProcess
CommunicationIsSymbolic
CommunicationIsContextual
CommunicationIsPurposive\
CommunicationIsTwoWay
5.ModelsofCommunication
(1)Aristotle’sModel
oneofourearliestmodelsinhisRhetoric.InRhetoric,Aristotleprovideduswithabasicideaofwhatvariableswouldhavetobeconsideredinacommunicationevent:
speaker,message,audience,andform(fig.1.1).
(2)Berlo’sModel
InTheProcessofCommunication,DavidBerloprovidedoneofthesimplestandmostusefulcontemporarymodelsofcommunication.Berlo’ssource-message-channel-receivermodel,commonlyreferredtoastheSMCRmodel,hassixbasicconstituents:
1.Thesource
2.Theencoder
3.Themessage
4.Thechannel
5.Thedecoder
6.Thereceiver
Inorderforustocommunicatewitheachother,wehavetotranslateourthoughtsintosymbols(encodethem)inordertotransmitmessages.Inourcontemporaryworld,wehavetorelyontechnologytoencodeanddecodeourmessages.
Berlo’smodelislinear,andthereforelimited.
(3)ShannonandWeaver’sModel
Signal
Message
Message
ReceivedSignal
ShannonandWeaver’scommunicationmodel(fig.1.2)introducestheconceptsofnoise,entropy,redundancy,bit,feedback,andchannelcapacity.Noiseisanythinginthechannel(ormedium)thatinterfereswiththemessage.
AseriouslimitationoftheShannonandWeavermodelisthatitdoesnottakemeaningintoaccount.
(4)Lasswell’sModel
In1948,politicalscientistHaroldLasswellcameupwithwhathassincebeencalledtheLasswellformulaasamodelforexplainingcommunication.Heconcludedthatausefulwaytodescribecommunicationwastoaskthefollowingaboutit:
Who
SaysWhat
InWhichChannel
ToWhom
WithWhatEffect?
9
Lasswell’sverbalmodelishelpfulbecauseitintroducestheconceptofeffect.Themodeltakesintoaccountthefactthatmessagesarenotjustdecodedbyreceivers,butalsohaveanimpactonthem.
(5)Gerbner’sModel
Itdealswiththenatureofthehumancommunicatorandtheroleperceptionplaysincommunication.Gerbner’smodelclearlydistinguishesbetweenanactualevent,thewayitisperceivedbythesender,howthatperceptionismadeintoamessage,andthewaythemessageisperceivedbythereceiver.Thismodelisusefulindescribingbothcommunicationandperceptualproblems.Appliedtothemassmedia,itcanalsobeusedtoexplorehowaccuratelyeventsintherealworldarereportedbythenewsasmeasuredbyaudienceperceptions.
(6)DeFleur’sModel
1966,MelvinDeFleurcreatedacommunicationmodelthatwasadevelopmentoftheShannonandWeavermodel.InDeFleur’smodel,thetwo-wayprocessnatureofcommunicationishighlighted.Hisinclusionoffeedbackandhisdepictionofcommunicationascircularsuggestthattheprocessofobtainingmeaningfrommessagesiscomplex.Frequentlysenderandreceiverhavetoexchangerolesastheyworktoovercomenoiseandnegotiateacommonmeaning.
Generally,thetermfeedbackreferstoanyresponseareceivermightsendtoasourceinresponsetoanoriginalmessage.
(7)WestleyandMacLean’sModel
TheWestleyandMacLeanmodel,datingfrom1957,hasbeeninfluentialbecauseitdealswiththecomplexsituationofmasscommunicationratherthanthetwo-personmodelsfeaturingasinglesenderandreceiver.Thismodel(fig.1.5)hasitsorigininsocialpsychologyandintheworkofT.M.Newcombwhosoughttorepresentthedynamicsofcommunicationsituationsbyexamininghowpeopledevelopedandmaintainedtheirrelationshipswitheachother.
BuildingonNewcomb’swork,BruceWestleyandMalcolmMacLeandevisedamorecomplicatedmodeltoaccountforcommunicationinthemassmedia.Inthismodel,AandBarestillcommunicatingaboutsomeobjectortopicX.Becausethisisamasscommunicationsituation,however,AisactingasanadvocatebyselectingfrommanypossibleXstheonethatistobecommunicatedtopersonB.A’sintentinselectingamongthesetopicsistopurposivelymodifyB’sperceptionofX.Acouldbeapoliticianoranadvertiser,forexample,andXcouldbeanytopicfromoursocialenvironment.CisanagentofbothAandB.C’sroleistoselectcertainA’sandprovidethemwithaccesstothechannelreachingBortheaudience.C’sintentistomeetB’sneedforadequateinformation.
ChapterII
1.Communicationplaysavarietyofrolesinourlivesandinoursocietyasawhole.Functionalapproachestocommunicationattempttodefineanddescribeexactlywhatthoserolesmightbe.
Functionaltheoriesassumethatsocieties,groups,andindividualsexistassystemsandthatthesesystemstrytomaintainthemselvesinastateofequilibriumorhomeostasis.
Decidingwhatpurposeacommunicationeventservesisnotalwayseasybecausesometimescommunicationeventsservemultiplefunctions.Althoughwegenerallycreatemessageswithaconsciousintentioninmind,sometimesmessagesserveotherfunctionsaswell.
Notallthefunctionsofacommunicatedeventmaybeintended(ormanifest):
somemaybeunintended(orlatent).(newscoverageofstuntdriverEvelKnievel’sjump)
Functionalanalysishelpsusseehowcommunicationeventsaffectthenormaloperationofagivensystem.Eventswhichhelpmaintainsystemsareconsideredfunctional;thosewhichcausestrainareconsidereddysfunctional.
CategoriesofCommunicationFunction
Thecategoriesmostoftenusedtodescribethedifferentfunctionscommunicationservesareinformation,instruction,persuasion,andentertainment.
Persuasion
Persuasionreferstothatclassofmessagesdesignedtoalterourbeliefsorbehavior.Thekeytorecognizingcommunication’spersuasivefunctionistolookforappealstopersonalvaluesandmotives.TheGreekrhetoricianAristotle(384-322B.C.)wroteaboutthreemajortypesofappeal.HecalledthemIogos(理性ration),ortheappealtologic;ethos(气质),ortheappealtocharacter;andpathos(情感),ortheappealtoemotions.
Whenpersuasionisdesignedtoinfluencehumanactionsbymanipulatingspoken,written,orpictorialrepresentations,thenitisconsideredpropaganda.
HaroldLasswell,apioneeringtheoristintherealmofpropaganda,arguedthatadvertisingalsofallsintothecategoryofpropaganda.
Peoplewithwhomthelistenerandviewercanreadilyidentifyorlookuptoareidealforcreatingeffectivepropaganda.Asimilarapproachisusedincreatingcommercials.That’swhycelebrityendorsements(明人代言)andtestimonialsaresooftenverysuccessful.
Entertainment
Communicationeventswhosefunctionistogiveuspleasurearecalledentertainment.Mostofthepeoplewhoprovideentertainmenteventsforusareprofessionalsworkinginanentertainmentindustry—radio,television,film,orpublishing.
ProblemswithInformation
Weexpectinformationtobecompleteandaccurate,butthemerefactthatinformationispreparedbyhumanbeingsmeansthatcompletenessandaccuracycannotbeassumed.Peoplewhoprovideinformationserveasgatekeepers.Theyhavetomakesomedecisionsaboutwhatinformationshouldbemadeavailableandwhatcanbeeliminated.
Asecondproblemisthatsometimeswhatappearstobeinformationisreallyopinionorpropagandapretendingtobefact.
Anotherproblemwithinformationliesinthewaywebringfactstobearinourindividuallives.Whenwereceiveinformation,wetrytointegrateitintoourexistingknowledgeinordertomakeuseofit.
Howweseetheworldisshapedbyourculturalandpersonalexperiencesandtheseaffecthowwereacttofactualdata.
ProblemswithInstruction
Manyminorityandwomen’sgroupspointtoimplicitbiasesininstructionwhentheycritiquethecourseofferingsincollegesanduniversities.
Twootherproblemsrelatedtotheinstructionalfunctionofcommunicationarethefactthatnotallpeoplelearnthesamewayandthatnotallpeoplehavethesamemotivationforlearning.
ProblemswithPersuasion
Theintentofpersuasionistogetustochangeeitherourbehaviororourattitudesaboutsomething.Inordertogetustoact,persuasionoftenworksonourdeepest-heldpersonalbeliefs.
Inordertoavoidhavingouremotionsmanipulated,receiversofpersuasivemessagesoftenhavetomakeaspecialefforttoremainawareofsuchtechniquesbeingappliedtous.
Mediasourceseffectivelyactasagendasetters(议程设置者).
Thenews,byselectingwhatstorieswehearabout,tellsusessentiallywhatitisthatisimportantforustoknow.Thereiscurrentlyabitofcontroversyamongcommunicationresearchersaboutwhetherornotthemediacanmakeusthinkwhattheywish,butthereisgeneralagreementthattheycanatleastgetustothinkaboutwhattheywish.
ProblemswithEntertainment
Entertainmentandleisurearebigbusiness,andthesebusinessesaredrivenbyprofitmotives.Somecriticsofthemedia—especiallytelevision—pointtotheircommercialnatureasamajorcauseofthepoorqualityoftheirproducts.
Thediscussionoftelevisionasthe“greatwasteland”;objectionsofmanypeopletothesex,violence,anddrugsassociatedwithrockculture
thesearchforqualityissecondtothesearchforprofit.Criticsofthemediaasbigbusinesswouldconsidermuchoftheentertainmenttheyproducedysfunctional.
Itencouragespassivity.“narcotizing
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