英语语言与文化论文.docx
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英语语言与文化论文.docx
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英语语言与文化论文
Proto-English[edit]
ThelanguagesofGermanicpeoplesgaverisetotheEnglishlanguage(thebestknownaretheAngles,Saxons,Frisii,JutesandpossiblysomeFranks,whotraded,foughtwithandlivedalongsidetheLatin-speakingpeoplesoftheRomanEmpireinthecenturies-longprocessoftheGermanicpeoples'expansionintoWesternEuropeduringtheMigrationPeriod).Latinloanwordssuchaswine,cup,andbishopenteredthevocabularyoftheseGermanicpeoplesbeforetheirarrivalinBritainandthesubsequentformationofEngland.[1]
Tacitus'Germania,writtenaround100AD.,isaprimarysourceofinformationforthecultureoftheGermanicpeoplesinancienttimes.GermanicswereincontactwithRomancivilisationanditseconomy,includingresidingwithintheRomanbordersinlargenumbersintheprovinceofGermaniaandothersandservingintheRomanmilitary,whilemanymoreretainedpoliticalindependenceoutsideofRomanterritories.GermanictroopsservedinBritanniaunderRomancommand.ExceptfortheFrisians,GermanicsettlementinBritain,accordingtoBede,occurredlargelyafterthearrivalofmercenariesinthe5thcentury.MostAngles,SaxonsandJutesarrivedinBritaininthe6thCenturyasGermanicpagans,independentofRomancontrol.
TheAnglo-SaxonChroniclerelatesthataroundtheyear449Vortigern,KingoftheBritons,invitedthe"Anglekin"(AnglesallegedlyledbytheGermanicbrothersHengistandHorsa)tohelprepelinvadingPicts.Inreturn,theAnglo-SaxonsreceivedlandsinthesoutheastofBritain.Inresponse"camemenofAldSeaxumofAnglumofIotum"(Saxons,AnglesandJutes).TheChroniclereferstowavesofsettlerswhoeventuallyestablishedsevenkingdoms,knownastheheptarchy.ModernscholarsviewHengistandHorsaasEuhemeriseddeitiesfromAnglo-Saxonpaganism,whoultimatelystemfromthereligionoftheProto-Indo-Europeans.[2]
OldEnglish–fromthemid-5thcenturytothemid-11thcentury[edit]
ThefirstpageoftheBeowulfmanuscript
Mainarticle:
OldEnglish
AftertheAnglo-Saxoninvasion,theGermaniclanguagepossiblydisplacedtheindigenousBrythoniclanguagesandLatininmostoftheareasofGreatBritainthatlaterbecameEngland.TheoriginalCelticlanguagesremainedinpartsofScotland,WalesandCornwall(whereCornishwasspokenintothe19thcentury),althoughlargenumbersofcompoundCeltic-Germanicplacenamessurvive,hintingatearlylanguagemixing.[3]LatinalsoremainedintheseareasasthelanguageoftheCelticChurchandofhighereducationforthenobility.LatinwaslatertobereintroducedtoEnglandbymissionariesfromboththeCelticandRomanchurches,anditwould,intime,haveamajorimpactonEnglish.WhatisnowcalledOldEnglishemergedovertimeoutofthemanydialectsandlanguagesofthecolonisingtribes.[4]Eventhen,OldEnglishcontinuedtoexhibitlocalvariation,theremnantsofwhichcontinuetobefoundindialectsofModernEnglish.[4]ThemostfamoussurvivingworkfromtheOldEnglishperiodistheepicpoemBeowulfcomposedbyanunknownpoet.
OldEnglishvariedwidelyfrommodernStandardEnglish.NativeEnglishspeakerstodaywouldfindOldEnglishunintelligiblewithoutstudyingitasaseparatelanguage.Nevertheless,EnglishremainsaGermaniclanguage,andapproximatelyhalfofthemostcommonlyusedwordsinModernEnglishhaveOldEnglishroots.Thewordsbe,strongandwater,forexample,derivefromOldEnglish.Manynon-standarddialectssuchasScotsandNorthumbrianEnglishhaveretainedfeaturesofOldEnglishinvocabularyandpronunciation.[5]OldEnglishwasspokenuntilsometimeinthe12thor13thcentury.[6][7]
Inthetenthandeleventhcenturies,OldEnglishwasstronglyinfluencedbytheNorthGermaniclanguageOldNorse,spokenbytheNorsemenwhoinvadedandsettledmainlyintheNorthEastofEngland(seeJórvíkandDanelaw).TheAnglo-SaxonsandtheScandinaviansspokerelatedlanguagesfromdifferentbranchesoftheGermanicfamily;manyoftheirlexicalrootswerethesameorsimilar,althoughtheirgrammarsweremoredivergent.
TheGermaniclanguageoftheOldEnglish-speakinginhabitantswasinfluencedbyextensivecontactwithNorsecolonizers,resultingperhapsincasesofmorphologicalsimplificationofOldEnglish,includingthelossofgrammaticalgenderandexplicitlymarkedcase(withthenotableexceptionofthepronouns).EnglishborrowedapproximatelytwothousandlexicalitemsfromOldNorse,includinganger,bag,both,hit,law,leg,same,skill,sky,take,andmanyothers,possiblyevenincludingthepronounthey.[8]
TheintroductionofChristianitylateinthesixthcenturyencouragedtheadditionofover400Latinloanwords,suchaspriest,paper,andschool,andfewerGreekloanwords.[9]TheOldEnglishperiodformallyendedsometimeaftertheNormanconquest(startingin1066AD),whenthelanguagewasinfluencedtoanevengreaterextentbytheNormans,whospokeaFrenchdialectcalledOldNorman.TheuseofAnglo-SaxontodescribeamergingofAnglianandSaxonlanguagesandculturesisarelativelymoderndevelopment.
MiddleEnglish–fromthelate11thtothelate15thcentury[edit]
Mainarticle:
MiddleEnglish
Furtherinformation:
MiddleEnglishcreolehypothesis
ForcenturiesfollowingtheNormanConquestin1066,theNormankingsandhigh-rankingnoblesspokeoneoftheFrenchlanguesd'oïl,thatwecallAnglo-Norman,avarietyofOldNormanusedinEnglandandtosomeextentelsewhereintheBritishIslesduringtheAnglo-Normanperiodandoriginatingfromanorthernlangued'oïldialect.Merchantsandlower-rankednobleswereoftenbilingualinAnglo-NormanandEnglish,whilstEnglishcontinuedtobethelanguageofthecommonpeople.MiddleEnglishwasinfluencedbybothAnglo-Normanand,later,Anglo-French(seecharacteristicsoftheAnglo-Normanlanguage).
InthisperiodtheFrenchlanguagewasregardedlikeanofficiallanguageinEnglandbutthistendencywilldisappearin14thcentury.[10]
EvenafterthedeclineofNorman-French,standardFrenchretainedthestatusofaformalorprestigelanguage—aswithmostofEuropeduringtheperiod—andhadasignificantinfluenceonthelanguage,whichisvisibleinModernEnglishtoday(seeEnglishlanguagewordoriginsandListofEnglishwordsofFrenchorigin).AtendencyforFrench-derivedwordstohavemoreformalconnotationshascontinuedtothepresentday.Forexample,mostmodernEnglishspeakersconsidera"cordialreception"(fromFrench)tobemoreformalthana"heartywelcome"(fromGermanic).Anotherexampleistherareconstructionofthewordsforanimalsbeingseparatefromthewordsfortheirmeat,e.g.,beefandpork(fromtheFrenchbœufandporc)beingtheproductsof"cows"and"pigs"—animalswithGermanicnames.
EnglishwasalsoinfluencedbytheCelticlanguagesitwasdisplacing,especiallytheBrittonicsubstrate,mostnotablywiththeintroductionofthecontinuousaspect(tobedoingortohavebeendoing),whichisafeaturefoundinmanymodernlanguagesbutdevelopedearlierandmorethoroughlyinEnglish.[11]
WhiletheAnglo-SaxonChroniclecontinueduntil1154,mostotherliteraturefromthisperiodwasinOldNormanorLatin.AlargenumberofNormanwordsweretakenintoOldEnglish,withmanydoublingforOldEnglishwords.TheNormaninfluenceisthehallmarkofthelinguisticshiftsinEnglishovertheperiodoftimefollowingtheinvasion,producingwhatisnowreferredtoasMiddleEnglish.
Englishliteraturereappearedafter1200,whenachangingpoliticalclimateandthedeclineinAnglo-Normanmadeitmorerespectable.TheProvisionsofOxford,releasedin1258,wasthefirstEnglishgovernmentdocumenttobepublishedintheEnglishlanguageaftertheNormanConquest.In1362,EdwardIIIbecamethefirstkingtoaddressParliamentinEnglish.Bytheendofthecentury,eventheroyalcourthadswitchedtoEnglish.Anglo-Normanremainedinuseinlimitedcirclessomewhatlonger,butithadceasedtobealivinglanguage.
OpeningprologueofTheWifeofBath'sTaleCanterburyTales.
GeoffreyChauceristhemostfamouswriterfromtheMiddleEnglishperiod,andTheCanterburyTalesishisbest-knownwork.AlthoughthespellingofChaucer'sEnglishvariesfromthatofModernEnglish,hisworkscanbereadwithminimalassistance.
TheEnglishlanguagechangedenormouslyduringtheMiddleEnglishperiod,bothingrammarandinvocabulary.WhileOldEnglishisaheavilyinflectedlanguage(synthetic),anoveralldiminishingofgrammaticalendingsoccurredinMiddleEnglish(analytic).Grammardistinctionswerelostasmanynounandadjectiveendingswereleveledto-e.Theolderpluralnounmarker-enlargelygavewayto-s,andgrammaticalgenderwasdiscarded.Approximately10,000French(andNorman)loanwordsenteredMiddleEnglish,particularlytermsassociatedwithgovernment,church,law,themilitary,fashion,andfood.[12]
EnglishspellingwasalsoinfluencedbyNormaninthisperiod,withthe/θ/and/ð/soundsbeingspelledthratherthanwiththeOldEnglishlettersþ(thorn)andð(eth),whichdidnotexistinNorman.TheselettersremaininthemodernIcelandicalphabet,havingbeenborrowedfromOldEnglishviaWesternNorwegian.
EarlyModernEnglish–fromthelate15thtothelate17thcentury[edit]
Mainarticle:
EarlyModernEnglish
TheEnglishlanguageunderwentextensivesoundchangesduringthe1400s,whileitsspellingconventionsremainedratherconstant.ModernEnglishisoftendatedfromtheGreatVowelShift,whichtookplacemainlyduringthe15thcentury.EnglishwasfurthertransformedbythespreadofastandardisedLondon-baseddialectingovernmentandadministrationandbythestandardisingeffectofprinting.Consequenttothepushtowardstandardization,thelanguageacqui
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