考试法律语义学3.docx
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考试法律语义学3.docx
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考试法律语义学3
2009-2010学年第2学期研究生期末考试安排表
2010年6月30日 下午3:
00-5:
00
译学理论
2009级外国语言学及应用语言学专业
1222
2010年7月1日 上午9:
00-11:
00
法律语义学
2009级外国语言学及应用语言学专业
1222
2010年7月2日 上午9:
00-12:
00
第二外语(法语)
2009级外国语言学及应用语言学专业
1206
2010年7月2日 下午3:
00-6:
00
英汉对比法律语言学
2009级外国语言学及应用语言学专业
1218
考试会有词语解释,简答,比较,论述
Literalmeaningandnon-literalmeaning
Senseandreference
Extensionandintension…
Changeofmeaning
法律语义的确定
原型的确定
内涵,外延
Plainmeaningrules
Semantics
JohnI.Saeed
PartIPreliminaries
Chapter1SemanticsinLinguistics
1.5SemanticsinaModelofGrammar(p9)
Ashasbeensuggestedalready,formanylinguiststheaimofdoing
semanticsistosetupacomponentofthegrammarwhichwillparallelothercomponentslikesyntaxorphonology.
Anotherwayofdescribingthisistosaythatlinguisticknowledgeformsdistinctmodules,orismodularized.Asaresult,manylinguistictheoriesarethemselvesmodularized.
Ofcourse,unitsatalllinguisticlevelsserveaspartofthegeneralenterprise:
tocommunicatemeaning.Thismeansthatinatleastonesense,meaningisaproductofalllinguisticlevels.Changingonephonemeforanother,oneverbendingforanother,oronewordorderforanotherwillproducedifferencesofmeaning.Thisviewleadssomewriterstobelievethatmeaningcannotbeidentifiedasaseparatelevel,autonomous(自治的;独立自主的)fromthestudyofotherlevelsofgrammar.Astrongversionofthisviewisassociatedwiththetheoryknownascognitivegrammar,advocatedbylinguististssuchasRonaldLangacher.
Ifanindependentcomponentofsemanticsisidentified,onecentralissueistherelationshipbetweenwordmeaningandsentencemeaning.Knowingalanguage,especiallyone’snativelanguage,involvesknowingthousandsofwords.Wecancallthementalstoreofthesewordsalexicon,makinganovertparallelwiththelistsofwordsandmeaningspublishedasdictionaries.Wecanimaginethementallexiconasalargebutfinitebodyofknowledge,partofwhichmustbesemantic.Thislexiconisnotcompletelystaticbecausewearecontinuallylearningandforgettingwords.
Thedifffencebetweenwordmeaningandphraseandsentencemeaningconcernsproductivity.Itisalwayspossibletocreatenewwords,butthisisarelativelyinfrequentoccurrence.Ontheotherhand,speakerregularlycreatesentencesthattheyhaveneverusedorheardbefore,confidentthattheiraudiencewillunderstandthem.NormChomskyinparticularhascommentedonthecreativityofsentenceformation.Itisoneofgenerativegrammar’smostimportantinsightthatarelativelysmallnumberofcombinatoryrulesmayallowspeakerstouseafinitesetofwordstocreateaverylarge,perhapsinfinite,numberofsentences.Toallowthis,therulesforsentenceformationmustberecursive(递推的,循环的),allowingrepetitiveembeddingorcoordinationofsyntacticcategories(句法范畴).
Themeaningsofsentencescannotbelistedinalexiconlikethemeaningsofword:
theymustbecreatedbyrulesofcombinationtoo.Semanticistsoftendescribethisbysayingthatsentencemeaningiscompositional.Thistermmeansthatthemeaningofanexpressionisdeterminedbythemeaningofitscomponentpartsandthewayinwhichtheyarecombined.
Weseethatmeaningisintwoplaces,sotospeak,inamodelofgrammar:
amorestablebodyofwordmeaningsinthelexicon,andthelimitlesscomposedmeaningsofsentences.
Howcanweconnectsemanticinformationinthelexiconwiththecompositionalmeaningofsentences?
Oneapproachistoletthecompositionalworkbedonebythesyntacticrules,asinChomsky’smodelofgrammar.Inthismodelthephrasestructurerulesbuildsentencesandthusprovidethelinkbetweenindividualwordsinthelexiconandthesemanticcomponent,whichthencombinesthemeaningsofindividualwordsintooverallsentencemeanings.ThiswasinessencetheapproachofgenerativegrammarfollowingKatzandFodor,KatzandPostalandChomsky,thoughtherearesomedifferencesbetweentheseworks.
1.6SomeImportantAssumptions(p12)
ReferenceandSense
OneimportantpointmadebythelinguistFerdinanddeSaussureisthat
themeaningoflinguisticexpressionsderivesfromtwosources:
thelanguagetheyarepartofandtheworldtheydescribe.Wordsstandinarelationshiptotheworld,orourmentalclassificationofit:
theyallowustoidentifypartsoftheworld,andmakestatementsaboutthem.Therelationshipbywhichlanguagehooksontotheworldisusuallycalledreference.Thesemanticlinksbetweenelementswithinthevocabularysystemisanaspectoftheirsense,ormeaning.
Utterances,SentencesandPropositions
Threetermsareusedtodescribedifferentlevelsoflanguage.Themostconcreteisutterance:
anutteranceiscreatedbyspeaking(orwriting)apieceoflanguage.Sentences,ontheotherhand,areabstractgrammaticalelementsobtainedfromutterances.SentencesareabstractbecauseiffourpersonsintheroomsayIloveyouwiththesameintonation,wewillwanttosaythatwehavefourutterancesofthesamesentence.Inotherwords,sentencesareabstracted,orgeneralized,fromactuallanguageuse.Speakersseemtorecognizethatatthelevelofthesentence,suchkindsofinformationasthedifferenceinpitchlevelsbetweenmen,womenandchildren,someaccentdifferencesduetoregionalorsocialvariation,certainlythosephoneticdetailswhichidentifyindividualspeakersarenotimportant,andsodiscardthem.Sowecanlookatthesentencesfromthepointofviewofthespeaker,wheretheyareabstractelementstobemaderealbyutteringthem;orfromthehearer’spointview,wheretheyareabstractelementsreachedbyfilteringoutcertainkindsofinformationfromutterances.Onefurtherstepofabstractionispossibleforspecialpurposes:
toidentifypropostions.Intryingtoestablishrulesofvaliddeduction,logiciandiscoveredthatcertainelementsofgrammaticalinformationinsentenceswereirrelevant,forexample,thedifferencebetweenactiveandpassivesentences.Thegrammaticaldifferencebetweenthemwillneverbesignificantinachainofreasoningandcanbeignored.Otherirrelevantinformation(forthesepurposes)includeswhatwewillcallinformationstructure(inchapter7),i.e.thedifferencebetweenthefollowingsentences:
1)ItwasGaulthatCaesarinvaded.
2)ItwasCaesarthatinvadedGaul.
3)WhatCaesarinvadedwasGaul.
4)TheonewhoinvadedGaulwasCaesar.
Thesesentencesseemtoshareadescriptionofthesamestateofaffairs.Tocapturethisfact,logiciansidentifyacommonproposition.Suchapropositioncanberepresentedinvariousspecialwaystoavoidconfusionwiththevarioussentenceswhichrepresentit,e.g.byusingcapitals:
5)CAESARINVADEDGAUL.
Propositionsaremoreabstractthansentencesbecausethesamepropositioncanberepresentedbyseveraldifferentstatements.Moreoverinnon-statementslikequestions,orders,etc.theycannotbethecompletemeaningsincesuchsentencesincludeanindictionofthespeaker’sattitudetotheproposition.
Tosumup,utterancesarerealpiecesofspeech.Byfilteringoutcertaintypesof(especiallyponetic)informationwecangettoabstractgrammaticalelements,sentences.Bygoingontofilteroutcertaintypesofgrammaticalinformation,wecangettopropositions,whicharedescriptionsofstatesofaffairsandwhichsomewritersseeasabasicelementofsentencemeaning.
LiteralandNon-literalMeaning(p15)
Thebasicdistinctionseemsacommon-senseone:
distinguishingbetweeninstanceswherethespeakerspeaksinaneutral,factuallyaccurateway,andinstanceswherethespeakerdeliberatelydescribessomethinginuntrueorimpossibletermsinordertoachievespecialeffects.Non-literalusesoflanguagearetraditionallycalledfigurativeandaredescribedbyahostofrhetoricaltermsincludingmetaphor,irony,metonymy,synecdoche(举隅法,提喻法),hyberboleandlitotes(间接肯定法,反语法).Oncloserexamination,though,itprovesdifficulttodrawafirmlinebetweenliteralandnon-literalusesoflanguage.Foronething,oneofthewayslanguageschangeovertimeisbyspeakersshiftingthemeaningsofwordstofitnewconditions.Onesuchshiftisbymetaphoricalextension,wheresomenewideaisdepictedintermsofsomethingmorefamiliar.Forawhilethenewexpression’smetaphoricalnatureremainsclear.Afterawhilesuchexpressionsbecomefossilizedandtheirmetaphoricalqualityisnolongerapparenttospeakers.Somescholarsseemetaphorasanintegralpartofhumancategorization:
abasicwayoforganizatingourthoughtabouttheworld.
Inwhatwecancallliterallanguagetheory,metaphorsandothenon-literalusesoflanguagerequireadifferentprocessingstrategythanliterallanguage.
SemanticsandPragmatics(p17)
Semanticsandpragmaticsdenoterelatedandcomplementary(互补的)fieldsofstudy,bothconcerningthetransmissionofmeaningthroughlanguage.DrawingthelinebetweenthetwofieldsisdifficultandcontroversialbutasapreliminarywecanturntoanearlyuseofthetermpragmaticsinCharlesMorris’sdivisionofsemiotics:
Syntax:
theformalrelationofsignstoeachother;
Semantics:
therelationsofsignstotheobjectstowhichthesignsareapplicable;
Pragmatics:
therelationofsignstointerpreters.
Ifinaninvestigationexplicitreferenceismadetothespeaker,or,
toputitinmoregeneralterms,totheuserofalanguage,thenassignittothefieldofpragmatics.Ifweabstractfromtheuserofthelanguageandanalyzeonlytheexpressionsandtheirdesignata([语]所指(词语或符号所表示的事物)),weareinthefieldofsemantics.Andif,finally,weabstractfromthedesignatealsoandanalyzeonlytherelationsbetweentheexpressions,wearein(logical)synta
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