语言学PPT整合.docx
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语言学PPT整合.docx
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语言学PPT整合
Chapter1LanguageandLinguistics
•Thenatureoflanguage
1.Howtodefinelanguage?
1)EdwardSapir:
Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotions,anddesiresbymeansofasystemofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.
2)H.Bussmann:
Languageisavehiclefortheexpressionorexchangeofthoughts,concepts,andinformationaswellasthefixingandtransmissionofofexperienceandknowledge.Itisbasedoncognitiveprocesses,subjectstosocietalfactorsandsubjecttohistoricalchangeanddevelopment.
3)DavidCrystal:
Thediscussionmaybesummarizedbyreferringtolanguageashumanvocalnoise(orthegraphicrepresentationofthisnoiseinwriting)usedsystematicallyandconventionallybyacommunityforpurposeofcommunication.
2.Theuniquepropertiesofhumanlanguage
Therehavebeenanumberofattemptstodeterminethedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguage,anddifferentlistsoffeaturescanbefound.Weshalltakesixofthesefeaturesanddescribehowtheyaremanifestedinhumanlanguage.
•Displacement
Humanlanguageusersareperfectlycapableofproducingmessagesreferringtopastandfuturetime,andtootherlocations.Thispropertyofhumanlanguageiscalleddisplacement.Itallowstheusersoflanguagetotalkaboutthingsandeventsnotpresentintheimmediateenvironment.Animalcommunicationisgenerallyconsideredtolackthisproperty.Thispropertyenablesustotalkaboutthingsandplaceswhoseexistencewecannotbesureof.Wecanrefertomythicalcreatures,demons,fairies,angels,SantaClaus,andrecentlyinventedcharacterssuchasSuperman.Itisthispropertythatallowsthehuman,unlikeanyothercreature,tocreatefictionandtodescribepossiblefutureworlds.
•Arbitrariness
Itisgenerallythecasethatthereisno‘natural’connectionbetweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning.Alinguisticform,forexample,theEnglishword“dog”hasnonaturalor‘iconic’relationshipwiththatfour-leggedcreature.Recognizingthisgeneralfactaboutlanguageleadsustoconcludethatapropertyoflinguisticsignsistheirarbitraryrelationshipwiththeobjectstheyareusedtoindicate.
Thereareofcourse,somewordsinlanguagewhichhavesoundswhichseemto‘echo’thesoundsofobjectsoractivities.Englishexamplesmightbecuckoo,crash,whir,squelch,whichareonomatopoeicword.Inmostlanguages,however,thesewordsarerelativelyrare,andthevastmajorityoflinguisticexpressionsareinfactarbitrary.
•Productivity
Itisafeatureofalllanguagethatnovelutterancesarecontinuallybeingcreated.Achildlearninglanguageisespeciallyactiveinformingandproducingutteranceswhichheorshehasneverheardbefore.Withadults,newsituationsariseornewobjectshavetobedescribed,sothelanguage-usersmanipulatetheirlinguisticsresourcestoproducenewexpressionsandnewsentences.Thispropertyofhumanlanguagehasbeentermedproductivity(orcreativity).Itisanaspectoflanguagewhichislinkedtothefactthatthepotentialnumberofutterancesinanyhumanlanguageisinfinite.
•Culturaltransmission
Whileyoumayinheritbrowneyesanddarkhairfromyourparents,youdonnotinherittheirlanguage.Youacquirealanguageinaculturewithotherspeakers(alsoincludingyourparents)andnotfromparentalgenes.AnyinfantborntoChineseparents(whohaveneverleftChinaandspeakonlyChinese),whichisadoptedandbroughtupfrombirthbyEnglishspeakersintheUnitedStates,mayhavephysicalcharacteristicsinheritedfromitsformerparents,butitwillinevitablyspeakEnglish.
Thisprocesswherebylanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextisdescribedasculturaltransmission.Whileithasbeenarguedthathumansarebornwithaninnatepredispositiontoacquirelanguage,itisclearthattheyarenotbornwiththeabilitytoproduceutterancesinaspecificlanguage,suchasEnglish.
•Duality
Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thispropertyiscalledduality.Intermsofspeechproduction,wehavethephysicallevelatwhichwecanproduceindividualsounds,liken,bandi.Asindividualsounds,noneofthesediscreteformshasanyintrinsicmeaning.Whenweproducethosesoundsinaparticularcombination,asinbin,wehaveanotherlevelproducingameaningwhichisdifferentfromthemeaningofcombinationinnib.So,atonelevel,wehavedistinctsounds,and,atanotherlevel,wehavedistinctmeanings.
Thisdualityoflevelsis,infact,oneofthemosteconomicalfeaturesofhumanlanguage,sincewithalimitedsetofdistinctsoundswearecapableofproducingalargenumberofsoundcombinationswhicharedistinctinmeaning.
•Discreteness
Thesoundsusedinlanguagearemeaningfullydistinct.Forexample,thedifferencebetweenabsoundandapsoundisnotactuallyverygreat,butwhenthesesoundsarepartofalanguagelikeEnglish,theyareusedinsuchawaythattheoccurrenceofoneratherthantheotherismeaningful.ThefactthatthepronunciationoftheformpackandbackleadstoadistinctioninmeaningcanonlybeduetothedifferencebetweenthepandbsoundsinEnglish.Thispropertyoflanguageisdescribedasdiscreteness.
•Thesesixpropertiesofdisplacement,arbitrariness,productivity,culturaltransmission,dualityanddiscretenessmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanlanguage.Humanlanguagedoesofcoursehavemanyotherproperties,butthesearenotuniquelyhumancharacteristics.
•Theuseofthevocal-auditorychannel,forexample,iscertainlyafeatureofhumanspeech.Humanlinguisticcommunicationistypicallygeneratedviathevocalorgansandperceivedbytheears.
•Anyspeakerorsenderofalinguisticsignalcanalsobealistenerorreceiver,thispropertyiscalledreciprocity.
•Thenatureofhumanlanguage
1)Languageissystematic
2)Languageissymbolic
3)Languageisarbitrary
4)Languageisprimarilyvocal
5)Languageishumanspecific
6)Languageisusedforcommunication
•Exercisesaboutthenatureoflanguage
1)Theformoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalresemblancetotheirmeaning.
2)Thelinguisticsignunitesathingandaname.
3)Thecombinationofaconceptandasound-imageiscalledasign.
4)Conceptandsound-imagemaybealsocalledsignifiedandsignifierrespectively.
5)Eachhumanlanguageisorganizedintotwobasicsystems:
asystemofsoundsandasystemofmeanings.
6)Languageisasymbolicsysteminthesensethatthereisnoorlittleconnectionbetweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.
7)Theprimarymediumoflanguageisitswritingsystem.
8)Peopleusethespokenformmorefrequentlythanwritingasabasicformofverbalcommunication.
9)Whendescribingspokenlanguage,wegenerallyrecognizethreekindsofunits:
sounds,syllables,andwords.
10)Everysentenceofahumanlanguagehasacomplexgrammaticalstructureandconsistsofalinearstringofwords.
•1.2Functionsoflanguage
•Thefactthatlanguagefunctionsinoursocietymakesitpossibletoviewlanguageintermsofthesocialfunctionitserves.
•Malinowski(1923)regardslanguageasnotaself-containedsystem,butasentirelydependentonthesocietyinwhichitisused.Inhisview,threemajorfunctionsoflanguagearedistinguished:
(1)thepragmaticfunction:
languageasaformofaction
•
(2)Themagicalfunction:
languageasameansofcontroloverenvironment
(3)thephaticfunction:
languageasameanstohelpestablishandmaintainsocialrelations
Generallyspeaking,thefunctionsoflanguagecanbecategorizedintogeneralfunctionsandmetafunctions(元功能).
Generalfunctionsrefertotheparticularindividualusesoflanguagewhilemetafunctionsrefertothemoregeneralpurposesunderlyinglanguageuse.
•emotive(expressive)function
Accordingtosomeinvestigations,thoughtheconveyingofsomeinformationoccursinmostusesoflanguage,itprobablyrepresentsnotmorethan20percentofwhattakesplaceinverbalcommunication.AccordingtoDavidCrystal,itisameansofgettingridofournervousenergywhenweareunderstress.(forexample,swearwords,Whenyourealizeyouhaveforgottenanimportantappointment,whatwillyouprobablyutter?
•phaticfunction
ThenotionofphaticcommunioniscoinedbyMarlinowski,whoholdsthatlanguagecanservethefunctionofcreatingormaintainingsocialrelationshipbetweenspeakers.Weoftenuselanguagefornootherreasonthansimplytoexpressourwillingnesstobesociable.Nofactualcontentisinvolved.(whatarethedistinctivephaticcommunionexamplesinEnglishandChinese?
)
•informativefunction
Anothernameforinformativefunctionisideationalfunction,mainlyusedintheframeworkoffunctionalgrammar.Hallidaynotesthat“languageservesfortheexpressionof‘content’:
thatis,ofthespeaker’sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness.
•performativefunction(施为功能)
Theperformativefunctionisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofthosepersonsinvolved,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,etc.Thekindoflanguageemployedinperformativeverbalactsisusuallyquiteformalandevenritualized.(Thinkofthewesternstyleofmarriage,whatwillthepriestsaytothebrideandbridegroomintheweddingceremony?
)
•recreationalfunction
Alargepartofthepleasurewederivefromlanguagecomesfromthesuccessfulexploitationoflinguisticnoveltyatdifferentlevels,suchasthesoundlevel(alliteration:
singasongofsixpence),atthesemanticlevel(punsinadvertisements).
•Metafuncti
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